Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch), G. L Ghukasyan (Economy), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces), V. S. Nechaev (Health), M. N. Suvorov (Literature), E. S. Yakushkina (Architecture and Fine Arts)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch); >>

SAUDI ARABIA(Arabic: Al-Arabiya al-Saudiyah), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyah).

General information

S.A. is a state in the South-West. Asia, on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders in the north with Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, in the east with Qatar, in the southeast with the UAE and Oman, in the south with Yemen. In the west it is washed by the Red Sea, in the east by the waters of the Persian Gulf. Pl. OK. 2.15 million km 2 (official data; according to other sources, from 1.6 to 2.4 million km 2, the borders of S.A. in the south and southeast pass through deserts and are not clearly defined). Us. 30.8 million people (2014). The capital is Riyadh. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is the Saudi Arabia. rial Adm.-terr. division – 13 adm. districts.

Administrative-territorial division (2013)

S.A. – member of the UN (1945), LAS (1945), IMF (1957), IBRD (1957), OPEC (1960), GCC (Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf; 1981), OIC (Organization Islamic Cooperation; 1969; until 2011 Organization of the Islamic Conference), WTO (2005).

Political system

S.A. is a unitary state. Absolute theocratic. monarchy.

Head of state, legislator. and will fulfill it. power - the king. He personifies the power of the Saudi family. The special position of this family is secured by an act of constitution. character - Basic Nizam (regulations) on power 1992. The king elects the crown prince and removes him by decree. The king can transfer part of his powers to him by decree.

Execute power is exercised by the king and the Council of Ministers headed by him.

As an advisory body under the king and the government there is an Advisory Council (AC), whose functions include the development of recommendations on socio-economic issues. development of the country, examination of draft regulations and international. agreements. The council consists of 150 members appointed by the king for 4 years.

Political there are no parties in S.A.

Nature

Shores of the Persian Hall. and Krasny metro station. low, sandy, slightly rugged.

Relief

Plateau-like plains are widespread, gradually decreasing from 1000–1300 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and weakly dissected by dry river valleys (wadis). To the center. parts are dominated by stratified accumulative-denudation plains, bordered on the east by a strip of cuesta hills, including Tuvaik (heights up to 1143 m, benches up to 300–400 m). So... The area is occupied by the Najd high plateau. 400–1000 m with separation mountain ranges (Jabal Shammar, Harrat Khaybar, altitudes up to 1850 m), sand, pebble and rocky deserts (Hamads, including the El Hamad Desert), wadi beds.

On horizontally lying sedimentary rocks, stratified accumulative plains are formed, overlain by loose Quaternary ones, mainly. sandy, sediments. Processes of arid denudation and accumulation are typical. Forms of aeolian relief (ridges, dunes and dune-lumpy sands) occupy vast areas in the Big Nefud, Little Nefud (Dekhna), Nafud-ed-Dakhi (Nefud-Dakhi) and Rub al-Khali deserts, where high dunes occur. up to 200 m. In the zap. parts of S.A., parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the mountains of Ash-Shifa, Hijaz, Asir (up to 3032 m high - the highest in S.A.) with steep, highly dissected western. slopes and gentle eastern ones. Lava plateaus (harrats) are common. The mountains drop down in steps to the narrow (up to 70 km) coastal lowland of Tihama with sandy deserts, rocky outcrops and salt marshes. In the east along the coast of the Persian Hall. The flat Al-Hasa lowland stretches (up to 150 km wide) with rocky and sandy deserts, saline depressions (sebkhs) and wetlands.

Geological structure and minerals

C. A. is located within the north-east. parts of the Precambrian African-Arabian platform. To the west and to the center. partly the rocks of the Nubian-Arabian belt of the platform foundation protrude onto the surface - gneisses and migmatites of the Archean - Lower Proterozoic and the Upper Proterozoic complex, in which metamorphosed volcanic-sedimentary strata and granitoids predominate; several stand out. suture zones with the development of melange and ophiolite covers. In the north-east direction, the basement rocks plunge under the platform cover of the Arabian Plate - Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene terrigenous and anhydrite-carbonate (partly siliceous-carbonate) deposits, forming in the interior. areas of S.A. monoclines. B east part of the plate is the Gaza structural terrace, where a meridional system of swell-like uplifts (En-Nala and others) can be traced in a sedimentary cover up to 7 km thick. In the south there is the Rub al-Khali syneclise (precipitation thickness up to 8 km). Along the coast of the Persian Hall. Thick Neogene molasse of the Mesopotamian foredeep are developed. In the north, west and south there are Late Cenozoic continental basalts.

Main subsoil wealth - oil and natural combustible gas. Almost the entire territory of C.A. is included in Persian Gulf oil and gas basin; open several times dozens of fields, among them the largest in terms of oil reserves Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Manifa , Abqaiq . There are known deposits of ores of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead (pyrite copper-zinc with gold and silver El-Masan, Jebel Said, Mahd-ed-Dahab; copper-zinc Xnaygiya, as well as gold El-Amar, Bulgah, etc. .). C.A. owns part of the unique Atlantis-II sulfide copper-zinc deposit with lead, silver and gold in the Red Sea axial rift depression (115 km west of Jeddah). Main Iron ore reserves are associated with the Wadi Sawawin deposit in the northwest. There are deposits of bauxite (Ez-Zabira in the north), phosphorites (in the northwest), rock salt and gypsum (the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf), pyrite, barite, native sulfur, magnesite, marble, limestone, clay, sand and others. Occurrences of tin, tungsten, rare metals and rare earth ores.

Climate

Prem. tropical, sharply continental, dry, in the north – subtropical. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. Wed. January temperatures (in Riyadh) 14 °C, July 35 °C (absolute maximum 54 °C). Frosts rarely occur in the north. The difference between night and day temperatures is significant. Precipitation almost everywhere is less than 100 mm per year, in Rub al-Khali - less than 35 mm (in the central regions mainly in spring, in the north - in winter); in the mountains - up to 400 mm per year, maximum in spring and summer. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year, in some areas. they have been missing for years. Tihama is characterized by high relative humidity. Sultry south. The Samum wind in spring and early summer often causes sandstorms and a strong increase in temperature. Winter sowing the shemal wind brings a decrease in temperature to the east. areas.

Inland waters

Almost the entire S.A. is a drainage region without permanent rivers, temporarily. watercourses form only after intense rains. The largest wadis are Es-Sirhan, Er-Rumma, Ed-Dawasir, Bisha, Najran. After rare rainfalls, wadis sometimes turn into powerful mud flows. Oases are associated with wadis.

Ch. Groundwater and groundwater play a role in the country's water supply, providing more than 95% of water intake. Shallow groundwater accumulates in loose sedimentary strata and weathering crust, Ch. arr. in the western, relatively moist mountainous part of S.A. Osn. Water reserves are associated with underground aquifers located at great depths (150–1500 m) over an area of ​​approx. 1.5 million km 2. On b. Part of the country's territory is supplied with water through artesian wells and deep wells. Groundwater extraction significantly exceeds the volume of its renewal.

Annually renewable water resources amount to 2.4 km 3, water availability is low - 928 m 3 / person. per year (2006). The annual water intake is 23.7 km 3, of which 88% is used in the village. x-ve, 9% - in municipal water supply, 3% - in industry. Partial coverage of the fresh water deficit is achieved through sea desalination. waters (S.A. is a leader in the field of seawater desalination: 1.03 km 3 per year, 2006), reuse treated wastewater for villages. farms and industrial water consumption.

Soils, flora and fauna

Primitive desert soils predominate; there is no soil cover over vast areas; salt crusts are common. In the north, coarse-skeletal subtropical species are developed. sierozems and gray-brown soils, in depressions – solonchaks and meadow-solonchak soils.

Vegetation is predominant. tropical desert, semi-desert in the north. White saxaul, juzgun, shrub wormwood, aristida grasses and wild millet grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava plateaus, solitary acacias, prosopis grow along the wadi beds and in interdune depressions, and tamarisk grows in more saline places. ; Along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs (Sveda, Calotropis). Manna lichen is widespread. Loose sands are almost completely devoid of plants. cover. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the mountains, in the southwest, there are areas of savannas (acacia, commiphora, olive), above 2000 m evergreen shrubs are typical, from altitudes. 2500 m – Afroalpine vegetation with the participation of juniper. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grains (wheat, barley) and garden crops. Deserts and semi-deserts occupy 62% of the territory, herbaceous ecosystems and shrubs - 33%, forests - approx. 2%.

S.A. is home to 77 species of mammals (wolf, jackal, fennec fox, hyena, caracal, sand cat, wild ass onager, antelope, gazelle, hyrax, hare, etc.). There is a large population of domesticated camels (dromedaries). There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). 10 species of mammals are endangered, including the Arabian oryx (oryx), Nubian (mountain) goat, and Arabian gerbil. There are 125 species of nesting birds (larks, sandgrouses, bustards, kites, vultures, eagles, etc.), of which 13 are endangered. To the east areas - foci of locusts.

Condition and protection of the environment

For b. Particularly pasture lands are characterized by desertification processes. Wind erosion of varying intensity is widespread, and secondary soil salinization is to a lesser extent. Due to groundwater pumping, aquifer reserves are depleted. On the coast of the Persian Hall. there is an increased risk of oil contamination.

The system of protected areas includes 128 various objects. status, including 3 national parks (Asir, Harrat, and Farasan in the archipelago of the same name), many nature reserves and reserves, as well as extensive wildlife management areas in the north of the country and in the Rub al-Khali desert. In the national In Harrat Park and the Uruk-Bani-Maarid Nature Reserve, gazelles and oryx, which were almost completely exterminated in the country, have been reintroduced.

Population

The indigenous population makes up 74.1% of us. S.A., mainly saudi arabs, as well as speakers of the South Arabian languages ​​Mahra and Shahari (0.3%). Immigrants and their descendants (including Filipinos, Punjabis, Urdus, Persians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Egyptians, Sudanese, Somalis, Swahili) account for 25.9% (2010 census).

According to the official data (2013), out of the total number of us. 20.3 million people – citizens of S.A. (approx. 68%), approx. 9.6 million people – immigrants (approx. 32%). The population increased almost 10 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.1 million people in 1950; 5.8 in 1970; 16.1 in 1990). Natural growth of us. 15.5 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). The birth rate is 18.8 per 1000 inhabitants, the mortality rate is 3.3 per 1000 inhabitants. The fertility rate is 2.2 children per woman; baby mortality rate is 14.6 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 69.2%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 27.6%, people over 65 years old are 3.2%. Wed. life expectancy is 74.8 years (men - 72.8, women - 76.9 years). There are 121 men for every 100 women. Wed. density of us. St. 15 people/km2 (2014; some oases have a density of more than 1000 people/km2). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main cities are located. oil and gas production areas. More than 60% of the country's territory (the main part of the desert) does not have a permanent settled population. Share of mountains us. 83% (2014). Largest cities (million people, 2010): Riyadh 5.2, Jeddah 3.4 (Makkah region), Mecca 1.5, Medina 1.1, Dammam 0.9, Al-Hofuf 0.7 (Eastern district), Taif 0.6 (Mecca district), Tabuk 0.5. Economically active us. OK. 11.3 million people (2013; including about 5.3 million – citizens of S.A.). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 71.3%, industry – 23.3%, p. farms – 5.4% (2013). Unemployment rate 6% (2014; among citizens of SA 11.8%). Since 1996, the government has implemented a policy of limiting the hiring of foreigners. labor force and its replacement by citizens of S.A. - so-called. Saudization of personnel (most successfully carried out in the public sector).

Religion

OK. 90% of the population are Muslims, including 85–90% are Sunnis (mainly Hanbalis), 10–15% are Shiites: Imamis, Zaydis, a significant Ismaili minority (approx. 2.5%) (2014, estimate ). Representatives of other faiths include Christians (Catholics 2.5%, Protestants 1.5%, Orthodox 0.1%), Hindus (0.6%), Bahais (0.1%). The public practice of all religions except Islam and the opening of non-Muslim temples and houses of worship are prohibited. On the territory of S.A., in the cities of Mecca and Medina, there are Ch. shrines of Islam. Pilgrimage to the shrines of S.A. is made by St. 1.4 million Muslims per year (2014).

Historical sketch

The territory of Saudi Arabia from ancient times to the first centuries AD. uh

The oldest traces of human activity (probably ca. 1.3 million years ago), dating back to the Oldowan (see. Olduvai culture), known in the north (near the city of Shuwaikhitiya) and southwest (Bir Hima, Najran region) of the modern territory. S.A.; finds from the Acheulian era are at its center. and east parts, the Middle Paleolithic - everywhere. The lack of finds from the Late Paleolithic may be due to unfavorable climatic conditions. conditions.

Since the Neolithic (ca. 8th millennium BC), connections have been recorded with the territory of the Levant, from where, apparently, there was population migration and the exchange of obsidian with the territory of Yemen, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Petroglyphs (mainly hunting scenes) have been known since the 7th millennium. Since the 6th thousand, ties with the South have been strengthened. Mesopotamia (Ubaid culture), North-East. and South-West. Arabia.

In the Early Metal Age (from the end of the 4th millennium), monumental above-ground tombs, sanctuaries and, probably, associated anthropomorphic stone steles appeared. In the 3rd millennium, stable ties were established with Mesopotamia. Among the finds are examples of sculpture and glyptics, items made of lapis lazuli, carnelian (mainly imported from Mesopotamia, from the territory of Afghanistan, Gujarat). Coast of the Persian Hall. was part of the Dilmun civilization zone.

The oases of Hijaz, Teima (now Taima), Dedan (now El-Ula), Madyan have been continuously inhabited since the 3rd–2nd millennium. From the beginning. 1st millennium they played an important role on the “route of incense” (from the territory of Yemen to the Mediterranean), they are mentioned in Assyrian. cuneiform sources of the 8th–7th centuries, the Old Testament. From the 7th century inscriptions appear in local languages ​​using varieties of the North Arabian alphabetic script. In 550, a number of oases were conquered by the Babylonian king Nabonidus, who made Teima his residence for 10 years. At the site of Kraia (probably the capital of Teima), a “stele of Nabonidus” was found with an inscription in Akkadian. and the image of the king in front of the symbols of the Babylonian gods Sin, Shamash, Ishtar. Other cuneiform texts mentioning Nabonidus and rock inscriptions containing greetings to the “king of Babylon” are also known from Teima. In the 5th century these oases became dependent on Achaemenid states. In the 4th–1st centuries. important political The power was the state of Lihyan with its capital Dedan (about 10 giant stone statues of its rulers have been preserved). From the 2nd century. BC e. part of the North-West Arabia was part of Nabataean kingdom; Hegra (now Madain Salih) was a major city; numerous people are associated with it. rock tombs (analogues in Petra). In 106 n. e. The Nabataean kingdom became part of Rome. empires.

The central and southwestern parts of the modern territory. S.A. belonged to the South civilization. Arabia; one of its centers was in the Najran oasis (first mentioned around 700). The center of the Mukhaamir tribal union was located in the city of Raghmat, from the 6th century. The Amir tribe began to play a dominant role in the oasis. After a series of wars, Najran became dependent on the South Arabian kingdom of Ma'in. Raghmata is mentioned among the cities conquered by the Romans during the campaign of Aelius Gallus in “Happy Arabia” in 25/24 BC. e. In the 1st–5th centuries. n. e. Najran was under the rule of the state of Saba and Himyarite kingdom .

Oasis of Qaryat al-Fau (Qaryat al-Fau; mentioned from the late 4th century BC) in the north-west. border of the Rub al-Khali desert from the first centuries AD. e. was the center of the Kinda tribal union and a point on the “path of incense” left in the beginning. 4th century, probably due to the drying up of fresh water sources. Residential areas, a market, sanctuaries (including those of the supreme god Kahl), and a necropolis were excavated here. Inscriptions in Dedan, Nabatean, Sabaean languages, coins (including local mintage), bronze, stone, terracotta images of Greek. and Greco-Egyptian. gods, Sabaean funerary sculpture, frescoes, glassware, semi-precious stones, gold, silver and other finds demonstrate a combination of local and Western Asian, Egyptian, Hellenistic, Roman. traditions.

With the settlement of Saj near the Persian Hall. identify the city of Guerra as an important point in the incense trade system. Finds (including glass and metal dishes, gold and silver jewelry, locally minted coins) indicate the strong influence of Hellenism. A tomb dating from the 1st–2nd centuries was excavated in Ain Javan (north of the modern city of El-Qatif). with numerous jewelry.

Territory of Saudi Arabia in the 4th – early 7th centuries

So... influence on the situation on the Arabian Peninsula in the 4th–7th centuries. provided by external forces, the most important of which were the rival Byzantium and Sasanian Iran. Their confrontation turned the Arabic-speaking states that arose on the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula or within its borders into satellites of one or another of these powers. If formed in 380 and existed until 611 in South. Mesopotamia Lakhmid kingdom, which extended its possessions up to Al-Hasy and officially confessed Nestorianism, was a vassal of Iran, then arose in the East. Palestine Ghassanid kingdom (529–636), which included the north of the Hejaz and adhered to Monophysitism, was a vassal of Byzantium.

One of the forms of external influence on the intra-Arabian situation was the spread of Judaism and Christianity. This impact was felt especially strongly in the south of the peninsula, where, under the influence of Christianized Ethiopia, the local pantheon of deities was unified, which contributed to the emergence of the idea of ​​a single ruler of Heaven and Earth - Rahmanan (his name, modified in accordance with the phonetics of Northern Arabic dialects, later became in the form Rahman is one of the epithets of Allah). At the same time, Judaism penetrated geographically deeper into Arabia than Christianity. If the latter became widespread in the peripheral regions of the peninsula (Lakhmid and Ghassanid kingdoms), then it means. Jewish colonies existed in the oases of the Hijaz (including Medina) and Najd.

However b. parts of the territory of modern times. S.A. still remained pagan. The local pantheon included both male and female deities. Everyday practice was the veneration of stones, trees, stars and celestial phenomena, good and evil spirits as intermediaries between gods and people. Temples and sanctuaries were dedicated to the gods, one of which was the Meccan Kaaba, which gradually turned into a recognized cult center with rituals developing around it, which later became part of the Islamic ritual. The unsuccessful campaign against Mecca in 570 Ethiopians gave this center a special status as a “God-saved” one. King Abraha.

Arabian Peninsula in the 7th–17th century

The prophetic mission of Muhammad, which began in 603–605, transformed politics. geography of the Arabian Peninsula. Its result was the formation of an early Islamic state, which included the entire territory of modern times. Saud. Arabia.

The non-recognition of Muhammad as the Prophet by the Meccan Quraysh forced him to emigrate to Yathrib (now Medina). The Muslim system developed there. dogmatics and rituals (including due to the confrontation with local Jewish tribes), as well as the foundations of a new statehood, family ethics and morality based on the norms of this system, the formation of Muslims began. Ummah. While in Medina, Muhammad made his first conquests, which were limited to the territories neighboring this city. Strengthening your own authority as religions. leader, military leader and politician allowed Muhammad in Jan. 630 return victoriously to Mecca, which recognized his power. By 632 all tribes are centered. Arabia, as well as the population of Asir, Najran and Yemen, converted to Islam, which they contributed to as a soldier. threats and diplomacy. the efforts of its founder. However, Muhammad's first attempts to introduce zakat and sadaqa for the population of the territories under his control caused uprisings. Disputes between the Prophet's closest companions and relatives, which began after his death in 632, ended with the election of Abu Bekr as caliph. He managed to break the resistance of the rebels and pacify the rebel tribes, and the campaign he organized against Byzantium was successful. But his election led to the emergence of the first fault lines within Muslims. community. The preconditions for Shiism have arisen - supporters Ali ibn Abi Talib believed that it was he who should succeed Muhammad, and not Abu Bekr, whom they considered a usurper.

After the death of Abu Bekr, the caliphs were Omar ibn al-Khattab and then Osman ibn al-Affan. The murder of the latter in 656 by opponents of strengthening the role of his clan in the life of the Caliphate marked the beginning of fitna - a turmoil that divided Muslims into Shiites, Kharijites and Sunnis. The power of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who became the new caliph, was immediately challenged by the governor of Syria Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. His son Hassan, who became caliph after the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, renounced the title in favor of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, as a result of which power in the Caliphate passed from the companions and relatives of Muhammad to the Umayyads who ruled in Damascus. Political Muslim center state became the capital of Syria. After the transfer of power in the Caliphate in 747 to the Abbasids, the political center. life of the Islamic world moved to Baghdad. Mecca retained only the status of a religion. center, and the Arabian Peninsula became the periphery of a huge state. education.

The protracted process of disintegration of the Caliphate had a significant impact. influence on politics situation on the Arabian Peninsula. The emergence in 899 of the Qarmatian state in Bahrain, which included Al-Hasa, made possible the further expansion of representatives of this movement in the direction of the Hijaz. In 930 the Qarmatians attacked Mecca and stole ch. the object of worship is the “black stone” (returned only in 952).

After Ahmed ibn Tulun came to power in Egypt in 858, the Tulunid state arose, which also included the Hijaz. With the conquest of Egypt in 969 by the Fatimids, the Hijaz entered their state, in 1171 - into the state of the Ayyubids who replaced the Fatimids, in 1250 - into Mamluk Sultanate. After the defeat of the latter in 1516 by Sultan Selim I the Terrible (1512–20), Hijaz and Asir were included in Ottoman Empire. In 1638, Ottoman power also extended to Al-Hasa. Ottoman expansion did not affect the semi-desert interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula, however, the rulers of the oases and tribal leaders of this territory, solving the problems of their own. rise or maintain power, repeatedly turned to the Porte for help.

Arabia in the 18th – late 19th centuries. First Saudi states

If in Hijaz, which became part of the Ottoman Empire, Hanafi Islam became the dominant Sunni legal school (see Hanafis), then in Najd this means. To the extent possible, the Hanbali madhhab (comprehension) of Sunnism has become established (see Hanbali). This legal school required strict adherence to religions. dogmas and live practically the way the Prophet and his companions lived. In the 1st half. 18th century these ideas were developed Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who became the spiritual mentor of the residents of the small town of Uyayna in Najd. The activities of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab displeased the ruler of Uyayna. In 1744/45, the preacher was forced to move to the town of Ed-Diriya (now within the administrative boundaries of Greater Riyadh). The migration of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his alliance with the emir of Ed-Diriyah Muhammad ibn Saud (1726/27–1765) is considered the beginning of the Saud. statehood. This union later became the basis for interaction between the descendants of the emir - the Saudis and the teachers of the law from the Al ash-Sheikh family (Al Sheikh, Ali-sh-Sheikh) - the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

K con. 1780s the rulers of Ed-Diriya established dominance over the entire territory of Najd. Int. discord in Al-Hasa made it easier for the Saudis. expansion towards the coast of the Persian Gulf. Despite the resistance of local tribes, in the 1st half. 1790s Al-Hasa became part of the Saudi Arabia. possessions. An attempt by the Ottoman Vali of Basra to restore Ottoman rule in Al-Hasa ended in the summer of 1797 with the invasion of the tribes subordinate to the ruler of Ed-Diriya into the territory of Iraq. In the spring of 1802 they captured and plundered the largest Iraq. Shiite center of Karbala. From the beginning 1790s Saudi Arabia began. raids on Hejaz. In 1805, with the establishment of Saudi control over Medina and the ports of the Red Sea, the Hijaz became part of their possessions. Saudi power was also consolidated in Asir, from where attempts were made to penetrate Yemen. In the beginning. 19th century one of the directions of Saudi Arabia. expansion became Muscat and Hadhramaut, as well as the territory of the current states of the Persian Hall zone. (including the Bahrain archipelago). However, agreements concluded by local rulers with Great Britain, for which this area played an important role in ensuring the security of communications with British India, put a limit on her. The Saudis were forced to abandon the continuation of expansion due to the landing of Egyptian troops in Hijaz in 1811. ruler Muhammad Ali .

Establishment of the Saud. dominion over Mecca and Medina, which had previously been under Ottoman jurisdiction, dealt a blow to the prestige of the Istanbul sultans and caliphs, who were unable to ensure the security of the hajj. To restore its previous position, the Porte took advantage of Muhammad Ali's interest in returning Egypt's trade monopoly in the Red Sea area. Egypt troops after landing in Hejaz Yanbu (Yanbu el-Bahr), despite initial setbacks, gradually managed to develop an offensive in the direction of the interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula and on Sept. 1818 take and destroy Ed-Diriya. First Saudi the state fell, b. h. Saudi nobles and members of the Al ash-Sheikh family were taken to Egypt.

Egypt The occupation of Najd, accompanied by looting, violence and the revival of tribal anarchy, was short-lived. Member who escaped from the Egyptians. Saudi dynasty Turki ibn Abdallah (1821–34) led the military. Egyptian resistance occupation. He was supported by the heads of the tribes and the Hanbali ulema. Leaving the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, the new emir made Riyadh his capital and consistently expanded the scope of his possessions in the center of Najd, creating the second Saudi state. In 1830 he restored the Saudi Arabia. power in Al-Hasa, forced the Saudis to admit. suzerainty of the ruler of Bahrain and resumed expansion into Oman.

Drought con. 1820s and repeated outbreaks of cholera worsened the Saudi situation. emirate. In 1834, Turki ibn Abdallah was killed by a relative who had established himself in Riyadh. The coming to power in the same year of Turki's son Faisal did not put an end to internal affairs. discord and strife in the emirate. The situation was also seriously destabilized by Muhammad Ali's new attempts to assert his power over the Arabian Peninsula. In 1837 Egypt. troops entered the capital of the emirate, reoccupied Najd and captured Emir Faisal ibn Turki, who was sent to Cairo in 1838. Power in Riyadh passed to Khalid ibn Saud, who was replaced in 1841 by Abdallah ibn Sunayan.

In 1840 Egypt. The army was evacuated under British pressure. In 1843, Faisal ibn Turki returned to his homeland and restored his power in Riyadh. Saud. expansion towards Al-Hasa and Qassem territory resumed. In the beginning. 1860s Saudi power is completely restored in the west of Najd. The death of Faisal ibn Turki in 1865 again destabilized the emirate. He was succeeded by his son Abdallah ibn Faisal [emir in Dec. 1865 – Jan. 1873 (with a break), March 1876–1889] tried to subjugate Oman and Bahrain, but encountered opposition from the British. Faisal's other son, Saud ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1873 - Jan. 1875), who challenged Abdallah's right to power, established himself in Al-Has. In the spring of 1871 he marched on Riyadh and plundered the city. Subsequently, the rest of Faisal’s sons also joined the struggle for power, seeking help from local rulers and external forces - Abd ar-Rahman ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1875 - Jan. 1876) and Muhammad ibn Faisal. Busy internal Due to the struggle, the Saudis missed the rise in the west of Najd of the Jebel Shammar emirate with the capital of Hail, led by the Rashidid dynasty, which became allies of the Ottoman Empire. As a result, to ser. 1870s Saudi power extended only to Riyadh. In 1887, the Riyadh Emirate ceased to exist and became part of Jebel Shammar. The Saudi family, including Prince Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud), born in 1880, was forced into exile.

The emergence and development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1st half of the 20th century

In Jan. 1902, having made a campaign from Kuwait (the last place of exile of the Saudi family), Ibn Saud captured Riyadh. After taking the city, he renewed the agreement with the Hanbali jurists. Having strengthened Riyadh, Ibn Saud began to expand the borders of the territory under his control. Great Britain, interested in weakening Ottoman influence in the Arabian Peninsula, supported Ibn Saud, which allowed him to establish control over part of Jebel Shammar. In 1911, Ibn Saud secured the consent of Great Britain to join Al-Hasa, which was at that time under Turkish rule, as part of his possessions. In 1913 this territory came under the Saudis. jurisdiction.

Ibn Saud attached great importance to strengthening his influence in Najd. To do this, he used the Ikhwan movement that developed in this region and was inspired by Hanbali teachers. The goal of the latter was to transfer some of the Bedouins to settle in specially created settlements - hijras, where members of the movement devoted themselves to agriculture and the study of religion in its Wahhabi version. Those who moved to the hijras accepted the obligation to be loyal to other brothers in the movement, to obey the emir-imam, and not to maintain contacts with “polytheists” - Europeans and residents of the countries they subordinated. The first hijra - El-Artawiya arose in the 1st half. 1913, by 1929 there were already 120 hijras throughout the entire territory of Najd. The Ikhwans formed the striking force of Ibn Saud's army.

The First World War changed the balance of power on the Arabian Peninsula. The most important event in this region was the anti-Turkish uprising inspired by Great Britain (the so-called Great Arab Revolution in Hejaz under the leadership of the Sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi), which began in June 1916 and led to the emergence of the sovereign Kingdom of Hejaz, which was recognized League of Nations. Ibn Saud, despite the British. pressure, did not take part in the uprising, nor did he follow the calls of the British. agents start military. actions against Jebel Shammar, which remained loyal to the Ottoman Empire. One of the results of the 1st World War was the transformation of the status of Asir. Muhammad al-Idrisi, the emir of this region, acted on the side of Great Britain during the war and enlisted the support of the British. resident in Aden and expelled the Turks from that means. parts of the territory under his control. Until 1923, Asir remained political. independence under supervision Idrisid dynasty.

In the 1920s Ibn Saud began the unification of lands previously subject to the emirs of Ed-Diriya. Jebel Shammar was the first to fall, losing its brit. support and weakened by infighting in the Rashidid family. In the fall of 1921, its capital Hail was occupied by Ikhwan troops. Thus, the entire center came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of the Arabian Peninsula, Nejd became the leading state in the region, and its ruler became the sultan. Lack of a fixed border between Najd and Iraq, Najd and Transjordan (Brit. mandate territories), as well as Najd and Kuwait (British protectorate), which allowed Ibn Saud’s troops to penetrate their territory under the pretext of fighting “polytheists,” prompted Great Britain to raise the issue of border demarcation. On Nov. 1921 Anglo-Nejdi protocols were signed, establishing the borders of Najd with Iraq (finally determined in October 1925) and Kuwait, in October. 1925 – agreement on the Najd-Transjordan border.

In Jan. 1923 The north came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of Asir from the city of Abha, which became Saud. protectorate On Sept. In 1924, the Ikhwans captured and plundered Et-Taif, and in October of the same year, Mecca, where they began to destroy the domes over the graves of the Prophet’s companions. The attempt of the Hijaz nobility to pacify Ibn Saud by removing Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi from power and enthroning his son Ali was unsuccessful. On Nov. 1925 Medina submitted to Ibn Saud, and Jeddah in December of the same year. Great Britain actually recognized the results of the Saudi Arabia. aggression. In 1926, at the World Muslim Festival held in Mecca. Congress, Ibn Saud achieved recognition of his power over the Hejaz, which allowed him to acquire the titles of king and Servant of the Two Noble Holy Mosques, and his state became known as the Sultanate of Najd, the Kingdom of Hejaz and its annexed territories. In Feb. In 1926 it was officially recognized by the USSR, which became the first power to establish diplomatic relations with Ibn Saud. relationships. The process of unification of the state was completed in 1932–34, when it received the modern one. name – Kingdom of Saud. Arabia, Asir was finally included in its composition and, as a result of the Saudi-Yemeni war, the north was included. part of formerly Yemeni Najran.

Maintaining territorial integrity also relates. internal The stability of the new state was achieved through the power of the Ikhwans, as well as through the spread of the Wahhabi interpretation of the Hanbali madhhab. The Hanbali ulema, who developed the principle of devotion to the supporter of the “true faith,” justified power based on violence. In the beginning. 1925 The League for the Promotion of Virtue and the Condemnation of Sin (LPDOG), financed by Ibn Saud, arose in Riyadh. On Sept. 1926 its branch was created in Mecca, thereby spreading the practice of unconditional submission to Divine law in its Hanbali interpretation to the Hejaz (then to the whole country). This practice was based on the Najdi tradition, which required the theologian to monitor the implementation of Sharia norms in the sphere of religions. rituals and morals, as well as eradicate political. dissent.

The leading role in SA was played by the Hejaz, whose viceroy was Ibn Saud’s son, Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. The first Sauds arose in Hijaz. governments. institutions (the management experience of the Ottoman and Hashemite times was used). Until the end 1950s actual the capital of the state was Mecca (Riyadh remained the seat of the Najdi nobility and religious dignitaries). In Aug. 1926 were adopted Basic. provisions of the Kingdom of Hejaz, which determined the status of the viceroy, state. bodies, the Council of Ministers, as well as the Advisory Council - a kind of parliamentary assembly. The need for modern army, equipped with the latest military. technology, dictated the need to resolve the personnel issue. Personnel for the army were trained both abroad and in the technical schools created in S.A. schools.

“Conservative modernization” of S.A. became the reason for the first appearance of the opposition, represented by Ibn Saud’s former allies – the Ikhwans, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi Hanbalism. The list of accusations against the ruler they compiled in 1926 mentioned “unacceptable” contacts of his sons with diplomatic officials. agents of Great Britain, refusal to evict Shiites from the oases of the coast of the Persian Gulf, the operation of secular laws in the Hijaz. The revolt of the Ikhwans, who declared jihad against the ruler, was suppressed only in 1929.

Until the end 1930s basic The sources of revenue for the SA budget remained the Hajj and transfers from other Muslims. countries funds from the use of waqf. The decrease in the number of pilgrims (especially during the years of the global economic crisis of 1929–33), as well as the irregularity of the receipt of waqf contributions, complicated the financial situation of S.A. This prompted Ibn Saud to meet the requests of the Amer. oil monopolies, including Standard Oil Co. of California” (“Socal”), granting them the right to explore oil fields in the territory of Al-Hasa (oil was discovered in neighboring Bahrain in 1932). Ibn Saud hoped that this would not only replenish the budget, but also weaken the British. influence on the Arabian Peninsula. In 1933, an agreement was signed to grant Socal a concession for oil exploration in S.A. In November. 1933 the concession was transferred to Socal's subsidiary, California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. (in January 1944 renamed Arabian American Oil Company - Aramco). The concession agreement provided for the provision by the company of S.A. of loans, annual payments, rent and certain payments for each ton of oil produced after identifying its commercial properties. reserves (all payments had to be made in gold), the construction of an oil refinery and free provision of gasoline and kerosene to S.A. In response, the Saudis the government exempted the company and its enterprises from taxes and customs duties. First Saudi commercial oil quantities were discovered in 1938, the concession zone was expanded, and the concession itself was extended for up to 60 years.

At the initial stage of World War II, S.A. pursued a policy of neutrality, maintaining relations with both Great Britain and Germany and Italy, which were considered by Ibn Saud as a counterweight to the British. politics. However, later, under the influence primarily of the United States, which expanded oil production in SA and provided it with significant assistance, including military assistance, the Saudis. the government changed its position. In 1940 it broke off diplomatic relations. relations with Italy, in Sept. 1941 – with Germany. On 2/14/1945, at a meeting between Ibn Saud and US President F.D. Roosevelt on board the cruiser Quincy in the Suez Canal, an agreement was reached on the free use of Saud. ports by US and UK ships, as well as the creation of an American base. Air Force on a 5-year lease from Saudi Arabia. territory in exchange for guarantees to prevent the occupation of S.A. by troops of countries anti-Hitler coalition and recognition by the Saudis. independence. In March 1945, S.A. declared war on Germany and Italy, which allowed it to become one of the founding members United Organizations Nations. Having initially taken a cautious position regarding the process of creation that began in 1944 Arab League, S.A. joined this organization in March 1945.

Saudi Arabia in the 1950s–90s

Ibn Saud died on November 9, 1953. His heir was Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz, who appointed his predecessor. Council of Ministers and Crown Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. This led to the emergence of dual power in the country. The situation was aggravated by what was happening in S.A. and in the Arab world in general. world social and political. changes. Transformation of the previously patriarchal Saud. society also affected Shiite circles, but was not accompanied by an increase in their role in the life of the state. Shiite entrepreneurship was limited to the lower levels of business; there were no Shiite teachers or Shiite religionists in schools and universities. rituals remained prohibited, Shiite youth could not join the army and police. All this, as well as the persecution of the Saudis. authorities of workers' organizations and the harsh suppression of strikes pushed Shiite youth to join underground organizations. In 1953, strikes of oil workers, inspired by illegal trade unions and strike committees created by Shiites, broke out in Al-Hasa. In their wake, the National Front arose in the same year. reforms (FNR; since April 1958 National Liberation Front, FNL), which demanded “to liberate the country from imperialist. domination”, introduce a constitution, provide social rights to women, improve the situation of peasants and workers, and abolish slavery.

The spread of the ideas of pan-Arabism and the increasingly acute need for changes in society and politics. and economical The life of the country led to an aggravation of contradictions in the Saudi family, which resulted in an open confrontation between the king and the crown prince (initially supported by the FPR), who sought to take the throne. In May 1958, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz was forced to issue a decree empowering the CM to fully implement it. authorities. Nevertheless, contradictions within the ruling family continued to deepen. A group of young princes (the so-called free princes) led by Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz established relations with G. A. Nasser and demanded that a constitution be introduced in the country. reform, thereby hoping to gain access to power. In 1962 the “free princes” emigrated to Egypt. What happened on Sept. 1962 anti-monarchist. The revolution in Yemen (SA supported the royalists, Egypt supported the Republicans) contributed to a certain consolidation of the Saudis. At the end of Oct. 1962 Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz announced a new government program. It declared its intention to proclaim the “basic law of government”, based on the Koran and Sunnah, to “raise the social level of the nation”, to introduce free education and medical care. service, strengthen government regulate the economy, abolish slavery. Although the program was never implemented, it reflected a desire to take into account the demands made by the "free princes".

At the beginning of Nov. 1964 Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz is finally removed from power. Theologians have published special a fatwa legitimizing what happened. This contributed to an even greater strengthening of the influence of the ulema. The staff of the LPDOG and its funding have increased. Ulema were introduced into the cassation courts. The adoption of the Labor Law in 1968 became possible only after the Supreme Mufti recognized it as complying with Sharia.

The primary task of Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, who came to power, was to resolve the situation in Yemen and achieve mutual understanding with G. A. Nasser. However, direct Saudi-Egyptian relations initiated by the new king. Negotiations on Yemen did not bring results until 1967. The defeat of Egypt by Israel in the June War of 1967 (see. Arab-Israeli wars) changed the balance of power in the region. At the Aug.-Sept. 1967 at the Arab League summit in Khartoum, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz and Nasser signed an agreement on a peace settlement in Yemen, which provided for the withdrawal of Egypt from this country. troops. The decisions of the Khartoum summit testified to the growing influence of SA, which was turning into a leading Arab power. peace. At the insistence of S.A., a common position of the Arab League on Israel was developed, which provided for the refusal of peace negotiations with it until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied Arab countries. territories. SA became the largest financial donor to Egypt, Syria and Jordan.

Adopted by Great Britain in Jan. The 1968 decision to withdraw troops from the territories “east of Suez,” which presupposed the independence of the emirates of Treaty Oman, Bahrain and Qatar, strengthened SA’s position in the Persian Gulf zone. This region was acquired by the Saudis. foreign policy priority and became a place of confrontation between S.A. Iran. Strengthening international SA's influence allowed the Saudis to put forward the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” as an alternative to secular pan-Arabism. On Sept. 1969 in Rabat at a meeting of heads of state and government of 25 Muslims, held on the initiative of S.A. and Morocco. countries announced the creation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (since 2011 Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Coming to power in Egypt in 1970 after the death of Nasser, who was the main. a conductor of the ideas of pan-Arabism, A. Sadat expanded the sphere of Saudi-Egypt. political and economical interactions.

25.3.1975, while receiving min. Kuwait oil industry, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz was killed by his cousin Faisal ibn Musaid. On the same day in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. 11/20/1979 religious group. opponents of the government from among the young employees of the LPDOG, led by Juhayman al-Uteibi, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi dogma, captured Ch. Mecca mosque. 12/4/1979 Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz with the approval of the highest religions. The saud gave the order to the dignitaries. security service take Ch. the mosque is stormed. The action in Mecca coincided with the beginning of new Shiite unrest in Al-Hasa. Their spiritual leaders, led by Sheikh Hassan al-Saffar, initiated public speeches under slogans of support Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979, termination of supplies to Saudi Arabia. oil in the USA and the creation of the so-called. Islamic Republic of Al Hasa.

These events prompted the Saudis. the government to take steps to strengthen the position of the existing regime. One of the measures was the creation among young people, under the leadership of theologians, of circles and groups for the study of Wahhabi dogma (the participants in these circles later became mujahideen in Afghanistan, as well as in Kashmir, Tajikistan, in the North. Caucasus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo). In the sphere of foreign policy, a course was taken towards the unification of the Arabs. monarchies in the face of the threats that Iran posed for the states of the region. revolution and Iran–Iraq War 1980–88. This was expressed in the creation of 5/25/1981 Gulf Cooperation Council. In an effort to counteract Palestinian radicals, SA at the Arab League summit in Fez in 1982 put forward a plan for a Middle East peace settlement (the so-called Fahd plan), which for the first time outlined the possibility of pan-Arab recognition of Israel.

In June 1982, Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz died in Saudi Arabia. The throne was erected by Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz. The years of his reign became an important milestone in the history of the country - a time of overcoming internal. and external challenges and the beginning of economic and political modernization. In 1988, Aramco became the property of S.A. (became known as Saudi Aramco), which significantly expanded the financial capabilities of the state. The creation of modern technology began in the country. infrastructure: construction of a petrochemical complex. enterprises in Al-Jubail and Yanbu al-Bahr, modern networks. mor. ports, highways and airports. There has been a turn towards the “Saudization” of socio-economics. spheres - in industry, p. x-ve, the healthcare and education systems began to increasingly use national. labor force. To Saudi Arabia A new educated class emerged in society and began to play an important role in politics. After 1985 Saudi Arabia the authorities began to pursue a course of “cautious openness” towards the Shiite population of the East. province (Al-Hasy). The place of the previous administrators (natives from Najd) was taken by Shiites - graduates of universities in the region. Shiites were included in the management of industrial enterprises under construction. complexes. Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz granted amnesty to the participants in the 1979 unrest and announced a renunciation of the practice of discrimination against Shiites, including the removal of anti-Shiite texts from school textbooks.

Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz continued his predecessor’s course of increasing the role of SA in resolving regional conflicts, primarily in the Middle East. Saud. the government contributed to the cessation of civil war in Lebanon. 10/23/1989 in Taif on the Lebanese side. conflict signed a peace agreement. At the same time, in Afghanistan, S.A. actively supported the forces fighting against the Owls. troops, including the Taliban movement (SA presented the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988 as a victory for the “Islamic solidarity” it promoted). During the period Kuwait crisis 1990–91 S.A., fearing possible aggression from the Saddam Hussein regime and loss of dominance in the GCC, turned to the United States for help, provided its territory for the deployment of forces of the anti-Iraqi coalition, and allocated financial resources for the war. operations against Iraq. Saud. troops, as well as units of the GCC countries, took part in the liberation of Kuwait (see. "Desert Storm" 1991). After the liquidation of the Kuwait crisis, S.A. was actively involved in the Madrid peace process, one of the results of which was the adoption of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles and the creation in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West. banks of the river Jordan Palestinian National Authority. Perestroika in the USSR and the busy Sov. leadership's position during the Kuwait crisis created the preconditions for the resumption of diplomatic relations in 1991. relations between the two countries (were frozen in 1938).

The Kuwait crisis pushed the Saudis. government to carry out political reforms. In 1992, 4 constitutions were introduced. Act: Basic the law of government, the Law on the Advisory Council, the Law on the Administration of Provinces and the Law on the Council of Ministers, which created the preconditions for the transition to a “parliamentary monarchy”, the principle of separation of powers and the development of the foundations of regional self-government.

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

After the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, S.A. broke off diplomatic relations. relations with afg. by the Taliban government, deprived Saudi Arabia. citizenship of W. bin Laden and joined the international. anti-terrorism coalition that sent troops to Afghanistan. In 2003, S.A. criticized the US intention to carry out military operations. strike on Iraq, considering it possible to resolve differences with the regime of S. Hussein political. methods. However, later S.A. joined the anti-Iraqi coalition, and after the overthrow of the Iraqi government, it took part in the occupation and reconstruction of this country.

In connection with the death of Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne (August 1, 2005). Under him, on October 19, 2006, the Law on Oath-taking was adopted. He finally regulated the procedure for appointing an heir to the throne and prescribed obligations. approval of his candidacy by representatives of all factions of the Saudi family and swearing an oath of allegiance to him. In Oct. In 2011 and June 2012, this law was put into practice when Naef ibn Abd al-Aziz (died in the summer of 2012) and Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz were appointed heirs to the throne, respectively. In an effort to give greater stability to the regime, on March 27, 2014, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz appointed Muqrin ibn Abd al-Aziz to the newly created post of heir to the throne. This decision was caused by the health of Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz and was aimed at maintaining the continuity of the succession of Ibn Saud's sons at the top of politics. authorities.

During the reign of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz in 2005, the composition of the Constitutional Court was expanded. The number of its appointed members increased from 60 to 150 people. They began to represent all regions and religious groups of the country. In 2010, the Constitutional Court was given the power to legislate. initiatives. In Feb. In 2013, a “female faction” appeared in it (30 women were introduced into the Constitutional Court while maintaining its previous number). In accordance with the king's decree, starting from 2016, women will be able to participate in municipal elections. The introduction of women into the Constitutional Court was preceded by initiatives aimed at expanding their participation in society. life and their legal emancipation. Saud. women began to receive identity cards, be employed in ministries and departments, occupy positions of rectors of “units for women”, and be elected to the governing bodies of trade and industry. chambers, societies associations, work in the “women’s departments” of large stores. The country is actively discussing the issue of further expanding the rights of women, including the lifting of the ban on women driving cars.

An important place in the internal The policy of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz was focused on weakening the influence of the ulema on Saudi Arabia. society and state. The sphere of female education was removed from the jurisdiction of the corps of teachers, transferred to the Ministry of Education, the Court of Cassation came under the auspices of the monarch (2007), as a result of which the state gained full control over Sharia legal proceedings, and the codification of Hanbali law began to be carried out. In Feb. 2009 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz reformed the Council of Supreme Ulema (appointments to it are completely controlled by the authorities), introducing theologians representing non-Hanbali Sunni legal schools into its composition. Thus they received an official. recognition in S.A. In the summer of 2014, a representative of the Ismaili community was added to the Council of Ministers, who took the post of Minister of Constitutional Court Affairs.

S.A. did not experience the shocks of the so-called period. Arab. spring, although under the influence of events in neighboring countries, domestic politics intensified in S.A. life, a petition movement developed, whose participants demanded the deepening of the constitution. reforms and the introduction of a “parliamentary monarchy” in the country, and an attempt was made to create the Islamic Party of the Nation. S.A. led the GCC initiative aimed at achieving political. changes in Yemen peacefully, thereby preventing weapons. confrontation between government and opposition. Further, condemning the state carried out in this country by the al-Houthi Movement. coup, S.A. contributed to the development of a unified position of the GCC, which qualified the al-Houthi Movement as “terrorist.” org-tion” and demanded the restoration of the constitution. order in Yemen. S.A. supported the actions of the Libyan opposition to overthrow the regime of M. Gaddafi in 2011, while adhering to a policy of non-interference in the intra-Libyan conflict that began in 2014. In March 2011, Saudi Arabia leadership, based on the request of the Bahraini monarch and declaring the need to “confront Iran. expansion,” brought its troops (supported by the armed forces of some GCC countries) into the territory of Bahrain. Saud. The leadership reacted negatively to the overthrow of Egypt. President M.H. Mubarak, refused to support the movement Muslim Brotherhood, approved the removal from power of M. Morsi and established close relations with the new head of Egypt A. F. al-Sisi. Continuing the course of countering Iran’s “hegemony” in the Islamic world and in the Persian Gulf zone, S.A. welcomed the resignation of the government of Nuri al-Maliki in Iraq and now considers the opening of the Saudi Arabia possible. embassy in Baghdad, declaring, however, that the presence of local Sunnis in power structures is insufficient. Saud. The government condemns Israel for its punitive actions in the Gaza Strip, but refuses contacts with the Hamas movement and provides support to the Palestinian National Authority. administration headed by M. Abbas. Countering radical sentiments in Arab. world, S.A. considers the “Arab. the peace initiative" as aimed at achieving it will end. political settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

In connection with the death of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz on January 23, 2015 in Saudi Arabia. Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. On April 29, 2015, he declared his nephew, Mohammed ibn Naef, as crown prince, and his son, Mohammed ibn Salman, as his successor.

On most global and regional problems (conflict situations in the Middle East, primarily around Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, Sudan, the Arab-Israeli conflict), as well as on issues of non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the fight against extremism and terrorism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking and piracy, on the subject of the G20, the positions of the Russian Federation and S.A. coincide or are close. Bilateral contacts are maintained at senior and high levels. On Sept. 2003 Visited Moscow with official. visit of the future king S.A. Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz, during which he held negotiations with Russian President V.V. Putin. In Feb. 2007 official event took place. V.V. Putin’s visit to S.A. A set of bilateral agreements, memorandums and protocols was signed, including the General Agreement of November 20, 1994. Since 2002, the Joint Intergovernmental Organization has been operating. Russian-Saudi commission on trade and economics and scientific and technical. cooperation and Russian-Saudi business council (within the framework of the Russian-Arab business council). Large projects are being implemented in S.A. companies OJSC LUKOIL Overseas, including within the framework of the joint venture with Saudi Aramco "LUKOIL Saudi Arabia Energy" (LUKSAR), OJSC Stroytransgaz, CJSC Globalstroy-Engineering, etc.

Russian-Saudi sphere relations neither in historical In retrospect, today it is not free, however, from the problems that complicate mutual understanding between the two countries. Saud. public and private foundations under the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” actively acted on growth. North Caucasus, providing financial support to the Chechens. separatists. Only on Sept. 2003, while in Moscow, Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz stated that the Chech. question – “internal. business" of Russia, and contributed to the further registration of growth. membership in the OIC as an observer country (from the end of June 2005). S.A. is wary of Iran. nuclear program, considering that the negotiations taking place around it do not sufficiently take into account its interests and the interests of the GCC countries. Most means. irritant in the Russian-Saudi region. relations is the situation in Syria, in relation to which S.A. insists on the resignation of B. Assad and the transfer of power to the National. coalition forces sire. opposition and revolution.

Farm

S.A. is a developing country with a high level of income. GDP volume is 1616.0 billion dollars (2014, at purchasing power parity; 14th place in the world, 1st among Arab countries); in terms of GDP per capita, 52.5 thousand dollars (high per capita income is determined by the relatively small population and, therefore, income from oil exports). Human Development Index 0.836 (2013; 34th among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy is the production and export of oil (43% of GDP, 2014; over 80% of the state budget revenue) and petrochemicals. industry GDP dynamics means. largely due to oil prices. Wed. the growth rate of real GDP in 2000–08 was 5.1%, in 2009 – 1.8%, in 2010 – 7.4%, in 2011 – 8.6%, in 2012 – 5.8%, in 2013 – 3 ,8%.

Since the 1990s Much attention is paid to diversifying the economic structure and liberalizing the economy with increasing the role of private entrepreneurship. Economic development is carried out on the basis of 5-year plans. Great progress has been made in the development of petrochemicals. industry, infrastructure, energy, sea desalination. water, some industries in the light and food industries, as well as in healthcare. The development of new industries is facilitated by tax concessions, benefits for natural gas, electricity, etc. One of the chapters. obstacles to further diversification of the economy – lack of readiness b. Part of the economically active population to work in non-prestigious professions (the main part of those employed in industry are foreign workers).

The volume of accumulated direct foreign exchange. investment approx. 240.6 billion dollars (2013; at market prices), the total volume of external debt is estimated at 149.4 billion dollars. Inflation rates are approx. 3.7% (2013). S.A. has large foreign assets (approx. $737.6 billion, 2014), which are managed by sovereign national. investment funds. As part of attracting foreigners. investments in 2005, the country joined the WTO, the government began to create several “economic. cities" in various regions of the country.

Due to the decline in oil prices in 2013–14, there was a government surplus. The budget in 2013 decreased to $54.9 billion ($103 billion in 2012), the budget in 2014 was reduced to a deficit of $14.4 billion.

In the structure of GDP, the share of industry is 59.7%, the service sector - 38.3%, p. farming and fishing – 2.0% (2014).

Industry

Modern Manufacturing industries are in their infancy (in 2009–12, the total number of enterprises increased from 4887 to 6519). Basic role in industry production is played by mining (mainly the extraction of oil and natural gas) and petrochemical. industry Electric power industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of building materials, light industry, and food industry are also highlighted. In the beginning. 21st century The automotive, electrical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries are developing. Based on the number of employees, petrochemical industries are distinguished. (142.6 thousand people, 2012) and food (114.4) industry.

Prom. enterprises are built in complexes (the so-called industrial or economic cities; 14 in 2007, 28 in 2012; the largest are in Yanbu al-Bahr, Medina district; Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair, both -n Vostochny) with pre-prepared production. and social infrastructure and are located Ch. arr. by sea the perimeter of the country.

Fuel industry

The basis of the fuel industry is oil production and refining. The industry is governed by the Supreme Petroleum Council [includes state. Saudi Arabian Oil Co. ("Saudi Aramco"; the world's largest in terms of oil reserves and production) and "Saudi Basic Industries Corporation" (SABIC)]. S.A. is a key member. Organizations of oil exporting countries(approx. 1/3 of the total production of the countries included in the organization).

Oil production 542.3 million tons (2012; 1st place in the world); basic area - the Al-Hasa lowland and the adjacent shelf zone of the Persian Gulf. (according to production volumes, deposits in the Vostochny region are distinguished: Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Khurais, Manifa, Sheiba, Qatif, Khursaniya, Zuluf, Abqaiq, etc.); Several are being developed south of Riyadh. new ultra-light oil fields. Oil export 378.6 million tons (2013; 1st place in the world). Approx. processed annually. 101.4 million tons of crude oil (2012; production of fuel oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, jet fuel, lubricating oils, etc.).

The world's largest complex for primary oil refining is in Abqaiq (Bukaiq; Vostochny district; Saudi Aramco company; capacity 348.5 million tons per year; about 70% of produced oil is processed; including production in light and ultra-light oil). The largest refineries in the cities: Ras Tanura (Eastern district; capacity of about 26 million tons of crude oil per year), Rabigh (Mecca region), Yanbu al-Bahr (both - about 19 million tons ), Al-Jubail (approx. 15 million tons).

Natural gas production 111 billion m 3 (2012; according to other data, 93 billion m 3; about 70% is associated gas from the Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji and Zuluf fields; it is planned to increase production through the development of the Karan, Wasit and other fields .). There are plants for processing and liquefying natural gas (total capacity of over 61 million tons in 2013) in Abqaiq, Yanbu al-Bahr, Haradh, Hawiyah (the last two are in the Vostochny region), etc.

Electric power industry

Electricity production approx. 292.2 billion kWh (2013; more than doubled compared to 2000); 100% is generated at thermal power plants, the largest: Riyadh (in Riyadh; capacity 5336 MW), Ghazlan (in Ras Tannur; 4128 MW), Qurayya (in Abqaiq, 3927 MW). The increase in demand for electricity is caused by industrial development, population growth and high energy consumption for air cooling in the summer months (approx. 2/3 of consumption in the residential sector). Solar energy is developing. The industry is managed by the Saudi Electricity Company and regional electricity production companies, and there are also several operating companies. independent generating companies.

Thermal power plants operate with desalination. installations. S.A. is one of the world's leading producers of desalinated water (the development of the industry is of great importance due to the acute shortage of natural fresh water resources); will desalinate. installations provide up to 60% of national needs (2013; leading company - state-owned Saline Water Conversion Corporation).

Ferrous metallurgy

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the extraction of iron ore (760 thousand tons in terms of metal, 2012), direct reduction of iron (5.7 million tons), steel smelting (5.2 million tons) and the production of ferroalloys (196 thousand tons). T). S.A. imports means. part of iron ores and rolled metal. There are rolling mills [with a capacity of 5.5 million tons of rolled steel per year in Al-Jubail, as part of the leading national Saudi Iron and Steel Company (Hadeed); power approx. 800 thousand tons in Dammam, etc.], pipe rolling (jointly owned by ArcelorMittal and Bin Jarallah Group; seamless pipes, including large diameter ones, for the oil and gas industry; approx. 500 thousand . t; in Al-Jubail), ferroalloys (Gulf Ferro Alloys Company; in Al-Jubail), for the production of steel reinforcement [in Jeddah (1.1 million tons per year) and Al-Kharj, district Riyadh (755.5 thousand tons), both are part of one of the leading national. companies "Rajhi Steel Industries Co."], billets (950 thousand tons), coils (250 thousand tons; both are part of the company "Rajhi Steel Industries Co.", Jeddah), slabs, etc.

Non-ferrous metallurgy

Mining of non-ferrous metal ores (thousand tons, 2012) is underway: bauxite (760; deposits of Ez-Zabira, Hail district, and El-Bayta, district of Al-Qassim), zinc (15, in terms of metal; deposits Al-Masane, Najran district; Al-Amar, Riyadh district; Mahd al-Dahab, Medina district) and others; as well as (t, 2012) silver (7.9), gold (4.3; including the El-Amar, Mahd-ed-Dahab deposits; El-Hajar, Asir district; Bulgah, district Medina). Metallurgical complex in Ras al-Khair - one of the largest in the world [jointly owned by the national. "Saudi Arabian Mining Company" ("Ma'aden") and Amer. Alcoa; power approx. 1.8 million tons of alumina and approx. 740 thousand tons of primary aluminum]. Plants for the enrichment of gold ore in Bulgah and Sukhaybarat (Medina district). Smelting (t, 2013): zinc 28.0, copper approx. 10.0, lead st. 0.5, etc. (mostly sample from imported raw materials). Production of aluminum foil and containers, copper wire, etc.

Mechanical engineering

The automotive industry is actively developing. There are automobile assembly plants in Dammam (Isuzu trucks) and Jeddah (Mercedes-Benz trucks); production of automotive parts and components. Release divers. equipment (energy; for the oil and gas industry - production and technological center of the American company General Electric in Dammam), cable products, assembly of household appliances, etc. Shipbuilding, ship repair and aircraft repair enterprises, mechanical. workshops.

Chemical industry

The organization and management of the industry is carried out by the head. arr. national SABIC holding; b. including petrochemical plants are located in the cities of Al-Jubail (as part of the Al-Jubail Petrochemical Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the American Exxon Mobil, Saudi Japanese Acrylonitrile Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the Japanese corporations Asahi Kasei Chemicals and Mitsubishi, etc.) and Yanbu el-Bahre (including the Saudi Kayan Petrochemical Company complex with a capacity of up to 5.6 million tons of products per year) (operate in cooperation with refineries).

Basic organic products synthesis (production capacity, million tons per year, 2014): ethylene 19.5 (3rd place in the world; approx. 11% of world production), polyethylene approx. 18.4 (including high pressure approx. 3.5), methanol approx. 8.9, ammonia approx. 7.9, propylene St. 6.5, polypropylene approx. 5.6, urea 5.5, ethylene glycol 4.3, ethylene oxide 3.3, styrene 2.5, etc.

Miner production occupies an important place. fertilizers: phosphorus (based on phosphorites from the El-Jalamid deposit, El-Hudud al-Shamaliya district; it includes an enrichment plant with a capacity of 5 million tons of concentrate per year), nitrogen, etc.; basic centers are Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair.

Production of sulfuric acid in Ras al-Khair and Yanbu al-Bahr, phosphoric acid and nitrogen in Ras al-Khair, chlorine, caustic. soda and hydrochloric acid - near Dammam, titanium dioxide - in Yanbu el-Bahr and Jizan, magnesia - near Medina. Production of polymer films (including polyethylene and polypropylene) and materials, plastic products (including a plant for the production of plastic pipes in Riyadh), thermoplastics. resins, decomposition coatings, industrial adhesives, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and sanitary and hygienic products.

Construction materials industry

The building materials industry is based on its own. raw materials. Extraction (million tons, 2012): limestone (over 49), building. sand and gravel (approx. 27), brick and refractory clay (approx. 6), gypsum (st. 2); as well as (thousand tons, 2012) feldspar (168), kaolin (58, Ez-Zabira deposit), marble (25), etc. Cement production 50 million tons (2012); basic plants (capacity, million tons, 2012) - in Al-Hofuf (8.6), Riyadh (6.3), Rabigh (4.8), Yanbu al-Bahr (4.0) and Jal- el-Watahe (near Buraidah, 4.0).

Woodworking, pulp and paper, light and food industries

The country is rapidly developing woodworking, pulp and paper [including the production of furniture, cardboard (factory of the leading regional manufacturer - MEPCO company in Jeddah), paper (Dammam)], light (especially clothing production; large handicraft enterprises play a role - textile, weaving, carpet-making, leather and footwear, jewelry, pottery, etc.; the main centers are Jeddah, Mecca, Taif), food industry (main production of drinks, as well as dairy products, confectionery). , bakery and tobacco products, processing of agricultural raw materials, including dates, fish, etc.) industry. Printing enterprises.

Agriculture

Since the 1960s The state plays a leading role in the development of the industry: the introduction of modern technology. technology and engineering; state programs to provide peasants with land plots, issue interest-free loans and compensation for the purchase of equipment, seeds and fertilizers; support for purchase prices for grains and dates; providing benefits and subsidies to livestock farmers (increasing breeding stock at the expense of the state, importing feed and livestock from abroad), encouraging private initiative.

Large companies predominate in production. Possibilities of conducting s. farms are limited by natural climate. conditions (rainfed farming is possible on lands in the southwestern part of the country).

In the structure of agricultural of land (million hectares, 2011) out of 173.4, pastures account for 170.0, arable land - 3.2, perennial plantings - 0.2. S.A. provides itself with some types of food, but cannot achieve complete self-sufficiency (up to 80% of food is imported, 2012).

Leading industry farms - crop production. It develops in large oases (Al-Hasa in the Eastern region, Ed-Dawasir in the Riyadh region, etc.) and on irrigated lands (in the Asir, Riyadh, Al-Qassim, Eastern, etc.) regions. , as well as in greenhouse farms. Ch. agricultural crop – date palm. Date collection 1065 thousand tons (2013; 3rd place in the world); They also grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, etc.

In livestock farming there are large modern feedlot farms. Dairy and beef cattle breeding is concentrated around Riyadh, in the Al Qassim and Eastern regions. Traditional camel breeding, sheep breeding and horse breeding (common in the interior of the country and in mountainous regions). Poultry farming. Beekeeping. Livestock (million heads of livestock, 2013): sheep 11.5, goats 3.4, cattle 0.5, camels 0.3. Production (thousand tons, 2013): milk 2338.0, meat 802.8, leather and skins 51.5, wool 11.5. Fishing; fishing for pearls and sponges in the Persian Gulf, mining of black coral and amber.

Services sector

Stand out (billions of dollars, 2012) state. services (90.2), wholesale and retail trade, restaurant and hotel business (58.4), financial and business services (55.6), transport and logistics. services and communications (approx. 31.0), social and personal services (approx. 12.0). The country's financial system is regulated by the S.A. Monetary Agency (Central Bank, 1957; in Riyadh); largest commercial banks - state National commercial bank (1953; Jeddah), state. Al Rajhi, Riyad (both in Riyadh), etc. Saud. stock exchange (Tadawul; the only one in the country; in Riyadh). In 2014, 16.7 million people visited the country. (over 55% from Arab countries), income amounted to $9.2 billion. Main. Types of incoming tourism - religious (36.7% in 2012; mainly from Jordan and Pakistan; main centers - Mecca and Medina), business (18.6%), visiting relatives and friends (17.7%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The total length of roads is 221.4 thousand km, including 47.5 thousand km with hard surfaces (2006). Ch. roads pass through the main settlements, and also connect S.A. with Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, and Yemen. The dam bridge (length approx. 25 km) connects S.A. with Bahrain. The total length of railways is 1378 km (2008). Several international airports (the largest are in Jeddah and Riyadh). Aviation passenger turnover transport 68 million people (2013). Mor. transport is served by Ch. arr. foreign trade transportation. Mor. the fleet consists of 72 vessels (2010; including 45 tankers). Ch. mor. ports (cargo turnover, million tons in 2012): Jeddah 62.7, Jubail 52.8, Yanbu al-Bahr 40.0, Dammam 27.4, Ras al-Khair 2.3, Jizan 1.5 , Duba (Diba) 1.1 (Medina district). An extensive network of pipelines has been created. The total length of oil pipelines is 5117 km [including the Trans-Arabian Abqaiq – Yanbu el-Bahr (“Petroline”, or East-West) with a length of approx. 1200 km from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf. to oil refineries and ports of Krasnyi metro; underwater from S.A. fields to Bahrain], oil product pipelines 1150 km (Dahran - Riyadh, length about 380 km; Riyadh - Qasim, length about 354 km, etc.), gas pipelines 2940 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu -el-Bahr, etc.), for the transportation of liquefied natural gas - 1183 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr, etc.), condensate - 209 km (2013). Metro in Mecca and Riyadh (under construction, 2015).

International trade

The balance of foreign trade turnover is traditionally active. The volume of foreign trade turnover (million dollars, 2014) is 521.6, including exports 359.4, imports 162.2. The commodity structure of exports is dominated (% of value, 2013) by minerals. resources 87.5 (main oil), chemical products. industry 9.4. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2013): China 13.9, USA 13.6, Japan 13.0, Republic of Korea 9.8, India 9.5. Imported (% of value, 2013): machinery and transport equipment 43.3, chemical products. industry and other metal products 22.9, food and agricultural products goods 14.3. Ch. suppliers (% of cost, 2013): USA 13.1, China 12.9, India 8.1, Germany 7.4, Republic of Korea 6.1.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) number 233.5 thousand people. (2014) and consist of 4 types - Ground Forces (ground forces), air force, air defense forces, navy and independent forces. kind of missile forces. In addition to the regular army, the armed forces also include national ones. guard, border troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (10.5 thousand people), coast guard (4.5 thousand), industrial forces. security (9 thousand people), intended for action in crisis situations. During the threatened period and during the war. time, military officers may be involved in the interests of the Armed Forces. formations and units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Military annual budget $62 billion (2014 estimate). Supreme Commander. The Armed Forces is the head of the state - the king, who exercises general leadership through the Ministry of Defense, the General Staff and the Military. inspection. The king appoints min. defense, chief of the General Staff and commanders of the armed forces.

NE (75 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. The combat structure of the Army includes: brigades (4 armored, 5 mechanized, artillery, airborne), army aviation command (2 aviation brigades) and other units. They are in service with approx. 600 tanks, 300 armored personnel carriers, 1420 armored personnel carriers, 780 infantry fighting vehicles, 240 towed guns, 60 MLRS, 440 mortars, 2400 ATGM launchers, 900 short-range air defense systems, 1000 MANPADS. Army aviation has 12 combat and 55 multi-purpose and transport helicopters.

The Air Force (20 thousand people) is organized organizationally into commands (operational, supply, etc.) and aviation. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with approx. 300 combat aircraft, including 170 fighter-bombers (7 squadrons) and 110 fighters (6 squadrons). Military transport aviation has 45 aircraft. In addition, there are 16 refueling aircraft, St. 100 combat and training aircraft. Helicopter aviation numbers approx. 80 units. The Air Force also includes the Royal Airlift Wing - 16 aircraft. There are 15 militaries in the country. airfields, including 5 ch. Air Force bases (Dhahran, Taif, Khamis Mushait, Tabuk, Riyadh).

The air defense troops (16 thousand people) consist of anti-aircraft missile forces, anti-aircraft artillery and radio engineering units. troops. Organizationally, the air defense forces are consolidated into 6 districts. Interceptor fighters from the Air Force are operationally subordinate to the air defense. The air defense forces are armed with 144 Patriot missile launchers, 128 Improved Hawk missile launchers, 141 Shahin missile launchers, 40 Krotal self-propelled launchers, 270 anti-aircraft guns and installations, etc.

The Navy (13.5 thousand people) includes 2 fleets, each of them with several. groups of ships and boats. In service there are 7 guided missile frigates, 4 corvettes, 9 missile boats, 17 large and 39 small patrol boats, 7 mine-sweeping ships, 8 landing boats, 2 supply transports, 13 tugs; to sea aviation - 34 helicopters (including 21 combat ones). Mor. the infantry (3 thousand people) is represented by a regiment (2 battalions), armed with 140 armored personnel carriers. Coastal defense troops have 4 batteries of Otomat mobile coastal missile systems. Basic navy bases and bases - Jeddah, Al-Jubail, Yanbu al-Bahr, etc.

The coast guard (4.5 thousand people) has 50 patrol boats, 350 motor boats, and a training vessel.

National The guard (100 thousand people) includes regular formations (75 thousand people) and tribal detachments. Its main purpose - protection of the monarchy. regime, protection of governments. institutions, oil fields and other objects. Subordinates directly to the king, formed in the main. on a tribal basis, coordinates its actions with the Ministry of Defense, General Staff, security forces and police. Organizationally it consists of brigades (3 mechanized, 5 infantry) and cavalry. squadron (for ceremonial purposes). In service approx. 2000 armored personnel carrier, 514 armored personnel carrier, 70 art. guns, 110 mortars of 81 and 120 mm calibers, St. 120 PU ATGM.

Recruitment of regular aircraft on a voluntary basis. Men aged 18–35 years are accepted for service. Mobilization resources 5.9 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.4 million people. Weapons and military The equipment is almost entirely imported (from the USA and Great Britain).

The training of privates and non-commissioned officers is carried out in training centers and schools, officers - in academies of the armed forces and abroad. There are a large number of foreigners in the regular armed forces. military specialists.

Healthcare

Per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 94 doctors; 22 hospital beds – for 10 thousand inhabitants. (2011). There are 244 hospitals and 2037 health centers (2009). The overall mortality rate for adults. 3.32 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). Basic causes of death - cardiovascular and oncological. diseases, diabetes. Total healthcare expenditures amount to 3.7% of GDP (2011) (budgetary funding – 65.8%, private – 34.2%; 2012). Legal regulation of healthcare is carried out on the basis of the Fund. nizam on power (1992), laws on cooperative health insurance (1999), on private medical services. laboratories (2002), about labor (2005). The Ministry of Health provides preventive, therapeutic and rehabilitation services. honey. assistance and their financing. For citizens of S.A. med. help is free. The healthcare system is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary levels of medical care. service. There is also Islamic Cooperative Health Insurance (Takaful). Basic recreation areas - Al-Khobar, Dammam, Jeddah, etc.

Sport

The SA Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1964. Since 1972, SA athletes have taken part in the Olympic Games (with the exception of the games in Moscow, 1980); 3 medals were won - silver in the 400 m hurdles (Hadi al-Somaili in Sydney, 2000) and 2 bronze (Khaled al-Eid, individual show jumping in 2000 and team show jumping in London, 2012). The most popular sport is football. The SA Football Federation was founded in 1956. The SA national football team is a 3-time winner (1984, 1988, 1996) and a 3-time finalist (1992, 2002, 2007) of the Asian Cup; in 1994 she played in the 1/8 World Cup. The capital's Al-Hilal club (1957) is one of the strongest in Asia, a 13-time national champion (1977–2011), hosts opponents at the stadium. King Fahd (approx. 62 thousand seats).

SA athletes have been taking part in the Asian Games since 1978 (with the exception of 1998); in 1978–2014, 24 gold, 11 silver and 20 bronze medals were won.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The education system in S.A. took shape towards the end. 20th century Regulatory documents – Document on formation. politics (1969) and Strategic. Ministry of Education plan (2004–14). Preparation of Prof. personnel is under the jurisdiction of the Corporation for Vocational and Technical. education, sphere of higher education – Ministry of Higher Education. Education is free at all levels. The education system includes: preschool education (underdeveloped), 6-year primary education, 5-year (3-year incomplete and 2-year complete) education. 3-year vocational-technical course education is provided in junior colleges. Preschool education covered (2013) 13.2% of children, primary education – 93.4%, secondary education – 90.1%. The literacy rate of the population aged 15 years and older is 96% (data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Higher education is provided by high fur boots, higher technical. institutes, colleges of technology, pedagogical. colleges, colleges for girls. In the country there are St. 20 universities: Islamic University named after. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud (1950, current status since 1974), Univ. King Saud (1957) - both in Riyadh, University of Petroleum and Mining. resources named after King Fahd in Dhahran (1963, current status since 1975), Univ. King Faisal (has branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (1975), University of Science and Technology. King Abdullah (2009; 80 km from Jeddah), as well as the high fur boots of Dammam, Jeddah, Medina, Mecca, etc. The largest libraries: National (1968) and public. King Abd al-Aziz (1999) - both in Riyadh, King Abd al-Aziz in Medina (1983) and others. Nat. museum in Riyadh (1999).

Among scientific institutions: Research Center named after. King Abd al-Aziz (1972) and the Center for Research and Study of Islam. King Faisal (1983) - both in Riyadh; Center for Research in Islamic Education in Mecca (1980), Institute of Islamic Studies in Jeddah (1982).

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. languages: “Al-Jazeera” (“Peninsula”; since 1960; circulation about 123 thousand copies, Riyadh), “Al-Bilad” (“Country”; since 1934; about 30 thousand. copies, Jeddah), “Al-Madina” (“Medina”; since 1937; about 60 thousand copies, Jeddah), “Ukaz” (“Ukaz Newspaper”; since 1960; about 250 thousand . copies, Jeddah), “An-Nadwa” (“Club”; since 1958; approx. 30 thousand copies, Mecca), “Al-Yaum” (“Day”; since 1965; approx. 135 thousand copies, Dammam). In English. language daily newspapers are published: Arab News (since 1975; approx. 51 thousand copies), Saudi Gazette (since 1976; approx. 50 thousand copies, both in Jeddah). Radio broadcasting since 1948, television since 1964. Broadcasting of television and radio programs is carried out by the SA Broadcasting Service (Riyadh), the Government Television Service of the SA (Riyadh), Aramco Radio (Dhahran), Dhahran TV ( Dhahran). National information Saudi Press Agency (founded 1970, Riyadh).

Literature

The literature of the peoples of S.A. is created in Arabic. language. Before acquiring statehood, S.A. developed in line with the Arab- Muslim culture; in the beginning. 20th century presented in the main poetry in classical Arab. language, as well as prosaic. works of religion, history. and didactic. character. In con. 1920s - early 1930s Signs of renewal are noticeable: romanticism arose in poetry that reflected the influence of Egyptian literature. A major role in the development of prose was played by the book published in Medina since 1937. "al-Manhal", who published translations of stories from Western. and east languages; his publishers Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari and Ahmed Rida Khuhu became the founders of the short story genre, which initially had an exclusively edifying and sentimental character. Didacticism permeates the novels of Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari (“Twins”, 1930), Muhammad Maghribi (“Resurrection”, 1942), Ahmed Rida Khuhu (“The Girl from Mecca”, 1947) and Ahmed al-Sibai (“Thought”, 1948), who promoted education. and cultural reforms.

From the beginning 1950s realism began to take hold; got to graduate. modern design prosaic genres, literature acquired pronounced national. features determined by the characteristics of culture, life, socio-political. life. It's rushing. changes in lifestyle were reflected in the novels “The Price of Sacrifice” by Hamid Damanhuri (1959; in Russian translation 1966 “Love and Duty”) and “The Hole in the Veil of Night” by Ibrahim al-Humeidan (1959), which determined the main themes of realism. prose – the conflict of “fathers” and “sons”, modernization of societies. morals. Among the most striking realist prose writers: Abd ar-Rahman ash-Sha'ir, Sibai Usman, Najat Hayat. The characteristic feature is realistic. prose - autobiography: novels by Fuad Ankawi, Isam Haukir, Abd al-Aziz Mishri, as well as the trilogy of Turki al-Hamad “Ghosts in Deserted Lanes” (1995–98).

From the 2nd half. 1970s modernist aesthetics are established. Interest in the subconscious, the construction of a subjective, often irrational image of the world turned out to be a convenient opportunity to overcome censorship obstacles. The expression of unconscious desires, manias and obsessive states of an “alienated” person who has lost faith in the rationality of the world around him is at the center of the stories of Muhammad Alwan, Hussein Ali Hussein, Jarallah al-Hamid, Sada al-Dawsari, Abdallah Bahashwein, Noura al-Ghamedi, Badriya al-Bishr, Layla al-Uhaidib. Connection of modern Narrative forms with folklore techniques are distinguished by the works of Miryam al-Ghamedi, Hassan an-Nimi, Sultana al-Sideiri.

A wide variety of styles is inherent in literature. 20 – beginning 21st centuries: the novel “Reyhana” by Ahmed al-Duwaihi (1991) appears as a mosaic of scenes snatched from different points in space and time; mixing modernity with Arab. Middle-century heritage and people legends mark the novels “The Fortress” by Abd al-Aziz Mishri (1992) and “The Silk Road” by Raja Alem (1995). Warda Abd al-Malik's novel The Return (2006) uses the technique stream of consciousness. Great popularity in Arabic. The novels “She Shoots Sparks” by Abdo Hal (2008) and “The Necklace of Doves” by Raja Alem (2010) have gained popularity around the world.

Architecture and fine arts

Artist Since ancient times, SA culture developed in oases connected by caravan routes. The oldest artifacts date back to the early Lower Paleolithic (stone tools). In the Neolithic era, ceramics, objects made of obsidian, petroglyphs with scenes of hunting and rituals, figures of people and animals appeared (Jubba oasis near the city of Hail). From the 6th millennium BC. e. there is an increase in cultural ties with the South. Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the finds of Ubaid painted ceramics in the north-east. parts of the country. From the end 4th millennium BC e. tools made of bronze, vessels made of stone with carved decoration, and painted ceramics with zoomorphic and geometric designs are becoming widespread. ornaments, carved seals of the Mesopotamian type; monumental buildings (sanctuaries, tower tombs), stone sculpture (tombstone anthropomorphic steles from the environs of Hail and the El-Ula oasis, late 4th - 3rd millennium BC) appear. Monuments of the 1st half. 1st millennium BC e. (for example, the ruins of religious buildings and the palace of the Babylonian king Nabonidus in the oasis of Taima, mid-6th century BC) indicate increased contacts with Assyria and Babylonia. In the north of the country there are monuments of the kingdom of Lihyan (el-Ula oasis - ancient Dedan, 5-2 centuries BC) and Nabataean kingdom(city of Hegra, modern Madain-Salih, 2nd century BC - 1st century AD; included in the list World Heritage): sanctuaries rectangular in plan, rock tombs with jagged facades (2nd century BC - 1st century AD), fragments of stone statues with generalized rough facial features and reliefs with images of animals. At the turn of the 1st millennium BC. e. – 1st millennium AD e. in the department In the regions of S.A., the influence of Greco-Roman is evident in wall paintings, bronze sculpture, and jewelry. culture (finds from the excavations of Qaryat el-Faw, etc.). The largest Hellenistic ensemble on the territory of S.A. - the remains of the city and the royal necropolis of Saj near the city of Al-Jubail. From 4th–6th centuries. the ruins of the department have been preserved. Christian buildings (church near Al-Jubail). From Middle Ages. Islamic architecture of S.A. has survived a few monuments in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, also at the sites of pilgrims. Gor. development gray 18 – beginning 20th centuries bears Ottoman and Egyptian features. influences Traditional residential architecture is represented by buildings made of mud brick (in inland areas) or coral limestone and wood (in Hijaz and on the coast of the Red Sea), lined with gypsum, on a stone base, with wood. beam ceiling. Jeddah and Medina are characterized by tower houses with flat roofs, wooden. bars (mashrabiya) on the balconies, for Abhi - houses with eaves (from the rain).

After the formation of the independent state of S.A. in Riyadh, Jeddah and other cities, along with traditions. development, with middle 20th century modern multi-storey buildings appear. type, using concrete. Since the 1970s construction is underway with the involvement of foreigners. architects and urban planners (general plans for 10 cities in the northern and central parts of the country, the firm of K. A. Doxiadis), on the site of historical. buildings are being built in modern times. neighborhoods with buildings in international style, but with elements of tradition. Islamic architecture (mosques in Jeddah, architect Abdel Wahid al-Wakil). New types of societies are emerging. buildings (al-Khairiya complex, 1982, architect Tange Kenzo; construction of the international airports named after King Khalid in Riyadh, 1983, and in Jeddah, 1981, architectural bureau "Skidmore, Owings & Merrill", International Stadium . King Fahd in Riyadh, 1987, etc.). From the end 20th century in connection with the reconstruction of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the creation of numerous. pilgrim complexes, mountains ensembles are being intensively developed in modern times. builds. technologies and sun protection structures, decorative materials. Among the newest buildings are the Faisaliya Tower (2000, architect N. Foster and others), the Royal Center Tower (2003, both in Riyadh).

Modern S.A. painting and sculpture began to develop in the 2nd half. 20th century (A. Radvi, M. Mossa al-Salim, F. Samra, etc.). Nar. The claim is presented traditionally. jewelry, amulets, leather and wool products.

Culture

Culture is strongly associated with Islam; public theaters, cinemas, and secular music concerts are prohibited. Since 1985, an annual national event has been held near Riyadh. festival “Dzhenadria” (folk music and dances, in which only men participate; poetry, painting, etc.).

Saudi Arabia is a country of numerous Muslim mosques. It was here that one of the largest religions in the world was founded - Islam.

The country opened to tourists quite recently, no more than three years ago. Saudi Arabia is pleased to offer its guests the unique flavor of the Arabian deserts, as well as numerous shrines of the Muslim world. The ancient traditions of the East and the modern environment make this country attractive for lovers of unconventional holidays. A feature of the country's tourism business has become diving, which allows you to explore the diversity of the unique underwater world of the Red Sea. Camel beauty contests have no analogues in the whole world. And taking part in the famous falconry will give you new experiences.

Climate and weather

The climate in Saudi Arabia is unusually arid and dry. The Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places where the summer temperature never drops below +50 °C.

The north of the country belongs to the subtropical climate zone, and the south to the tropical. Snow here can only be seen in the mountains, and even then not every year. In January, the air temperature does not exceed +20 °C in cities and deserts, and on the Red Sea coast the air warms up to +30 °C.

Summer in Saudi Arabia gets unusually hot. In the shade, the air temperature ranges from +35 °C to +45 °C. But in deserts, due to the ability of sand to give off heat very quickly, you can encounter low temperatures, sometimes reaching 0 °C. For this area, sharp changes in day and night temperatures are a fairly common occurrence.

Rainfall in Saudi Arabia is uneven. Moreover, in the east and center of the country the rainy season lasts from February to April, and in the west - exclusively in the winter (from late November to early February). In winter, thick fogs are often observed in the mountains of the Arabian Peninsula.

Tourists prefer to visit Saudi Arabia from the first days of September to mid-October, as well as at the end of spring. Throughout May, the temperature here is not too high, and the sea wind brings some moisture into the fairly dry air.

Nature

The nature of Saudi Arabia is truly unique. On the territory of this state you can find huge hot deserts, high cool mountains, and wonderful warm sandy beaches.

Along the Red Sea coast rise the beautiful and mighty Hijaz Mountains. The height of some of them reaches three kilometers. In the same area is located one of the most attractive resorts in the Middle East - Asir. It attracts tourists from all over the world with its rather mild, pleasant climate and unique vegetation. This resort is preferred by ecotourism lovers.

The eastern part of the Kingdom is completely covered with deserts. The largest of them is Rub al-Khali, which occupies almost the entire south and part of the southeast of the country. The invisible border of Saudi Arabia with Oman and Yemen runs along it. The total area of ​​deserts in this country reaches almost 1 million km2. Most often, such deserts are inhabited by nomadic Bedouin tribes.

Sights of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia, as a strictly Muslim country, is notable for tourists for its religious relics and shrines. The most attractive to visit are famous Arab cities such as the capital Riyadh, Mecca, Medina and Jeddah.

The most visited city in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is its capital, Riyadh. The most popular attraction of this city is the citadel of old Riyadh, which houses the Museum dedicated to King Abdulaziz. Also widely known is the Royal Center, owned by the Prince of Saudi Arabia, which is the tallest building in the entire Kingdom. This huge complex includes a large number of residential apartments, offices, fine restaurants and luxury shopping centers.

Of course, no stay in Saudi Arabia is complete without a visit to the Muslim shrine - the city of Mecca. The founder of the largest religion in the world, the Prophet Muhammad, was once born in this area. In Mecca there is the Holy Haram Mosque, known since 1570. Its area is more than 300,000 km². This majestic building of Arabic architecture is completely covered with beautiful lilac marble and includes nine minarets, each of them reaching a height of almost 95 meters. The famous Haram can simultaneously accommodate up to 700 thousand people.

In the center of the Haram is the Kaaba sanctuary. Its corners are oriented to the cardinal points. The eastern corner of the Kaaba stands out among others due to the presence of the Black Stone. Some scientists believe it is a meteorite. But Muslims are of a different opinion, that it was this stone that God gave to Adam, who was expelled from paradise, after his repentance. The legend says that the color of the stone was white, and after being touched by sinners it changed to black.

Mecca is known throughout the world for its many Islamic shrines. During the Hajj, this city is visited by more than two million people from all over the world. People who profess other religions cannot enter this holy place.

Another major attraction of Saudi Arabia is Asir National Park, which is located near the city of Jeddah. Its unique vegetation and peculiar fauna attract many ecotourists.

Kitchen

The national cuisine of Saudi Arabia includes the culinary traditions of all countries of the Middle East. The main foodstuffs of local Arabs are mutton, poultry, lamb, eggs and fish. The traditional side dish for these dishes is rice with raisins. Traditional dishes of Arab cuisine include all kinds of soups (rice, peas, beans) and stews, which are seasoned with onions and lentils.

Not a single feast in Saudi Arabia is complete without the national dish “burgul”. This original name is given to porridge made from corn or wheat grits with the obligatory addition of sour milk. Also a popular dish, especially among the southern peoples of Saudi Arabia, is flour porridge with the addition of olive oil and pepper.

Local restaurants are happy to provide their customers with the famous national dish “guzi” - it includes baked lamb meat, generously seasoned with special spices, rice and nuts.

As in other Arab countries, in Saudi Arabia, when preparing meat dishes, it is customary to use only heat treatment without adding fat. Rice, which is traditionally seasoned with tomato paste and onions, is usually served as a side dish for meat dishes. Some restaurants may serve meat and fries.

All kinds of fruits and vegetables occupy a large share in the diet of Saudi Arabian residents. Dates and figs are especially popular here. Local residents pay great attention to the consumption of healthy nuts.

The most favorite drink in Saudi Arabia is coffee. In this country there is a special ceremony for preparing and drinking this wonderful drink. In Saudi Arabia, people are accustomed to flavoring their coffee with all sorts of spices, especially cloves and cardamom, but the Arabs do not add sugar to their coffee at all. Arabs are very fond of various spices.

Dishes made from fermented milk products are especially popular in this country.

Accommodation

The development of tourism business in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is only at the initial stage. Strict Muslim customs create certain restrictions on attracting foreign tourists to this country, which is why not all hotels in the Kingdom have the required number of stars. Mostly those hotels that are part of large hotel chains have passed the international classification. However, it is worth noting that all hotels are happy to offer visitors service and comfort at a quite decent level, which meets all European standards.

Most of the best hotels are located in the capital of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh. They offer their clients not only spacious and comfortable rooms, but also additional services of excellent restaurants, fitness centers, spas, and swimming pools.

The Lyauzan Hotel, which was built exclusively for women, became absolutely special for this country. Here, despite the rules of conduct prescribed in a Muslim country, they can independently book and check into rooms.

The cost of renting a separate apartment in Saudi Arabia is about $800 per month in the capital of the state, and in other cities - no more than $400.

Entertainment and relaxation

Most foreign tourists choose the capital of Riyadh to explore local attractions. While there, you should definitely visit the National Museum of Saudi Arabia, where a huge exhibition is presented that introduces visitors to the history and culture of this unique Muslim country. It is worth paying attention to the tallest building in the country - the Royal Center, owned by the prince. This building is commonly associated with the oasis of modern life in Saudi Arabia.

Not a single tourist who decides to come to this wonderful country will leave without visiting Mecca. Local residents call her “Mother of Cities”. This city is the most sacred place for all Muslims in the world and represents a kind of center of spiritual culture of the Kingdom. It is worth noting that only adherents of the Muslim religion can visit this place; dissidents are not allowed into Mecca. If, however, you managed to get into the territory of this ancient city, then you should definitely visit the famous Haram mosque and look into the main sanctuary of all Muslims - the Kaaba.

Close to the famous city of Medina is the most famous uninhabited city of Madain Salih. This is the largest and most fascinating archaeological site in Saudi Arabia. Be sure to visit this unique place, and it will not leave you indifferent.

Saudi Arabia has some of the most beautiful coral reefs on the entire planet. Therefore, this country is a must-visit for all diving enthusiasts.

The real entertainment for men here is falconry. Many centuries ago, such an activity was a kind of means of survival. Today this is one of the most popular sports, however, the price for this type of recreation is not cheap at all. The cost of one hunting falcon reaches $80,000.

Another great entertainment in Saudi Arabia is magnificent and unforgettable yacht cruises along the coastal islands. Such a short trip, which helps you get acquainted with the local beauties, will leave an indelible impression. The yachts that are used for such cruises have everything you need on board: air-conditioned rooms, separate cozy bedrooms, and spacious rooms with video systems.

For lovers of a relaxing holiday, Saudi Arabia is pleased to offer an excellent opportunity to catch local fish in deep-sea places in the Persian Gulf. If the captain stops the yacht in a fishing spot, you will remember such an amazing bite for the rest of your life.

It should be noted that lovers of nightlife in Saudi Arabia will not find their usual activities, since such events are prohibited by strict Sharia laws.

Purchases

The country's fame was brought not only by Muslim shrines, but also by a huge number of different retail outlets. These include traditional Arab markets, large department stores and large shopping centers. Moreover, here you can find both expensive boutiques and quite cheap shops.

Visiting shops is a favorite pastime of local residents, since other entertainment is prohibited by the Koran - there is not a single night bar, club or casino in this country.

Stores usually open without specific hours. As a rule, the working hours of most retail outlets are from 9 am to 1 pm, as well as from 5 pm to 8 pm. During the month of Ramadan, shops are open from 20:00 to 1:00 am. Friday is considered a day off in Saudi Arabia. On this day, it is customary to attend traditional sermons and prayers in mosques.

As in all eastern countries, locals love to bargain. It is common for this country to be able to reduce the quoted price by more than 40%. You can bargain with sellers in almost all retail outlets, except large supermarkets.

Transport

There are several modes of transport in Saudi Arabia. A railway connection (several hundred kilometers of roads) connects the capital Riyadh with major ports in the Persian Gulf. In addition, construction has begun on a separate railway line connecting Mecca and Medina.

Public transport is represented mainly by city buses and taxis. The quality of the Kingdom's roads leaves much to be desired. At the same time, the roads in Riyadh are among the best in the country. The road surface in large cities has a special composition that can significantly reduce the amount of reflected heat, which greatly saves local residents from the sultry heat.

All buses in this country are very cozy and comfortable. The cost of one trip around the city ranges from 1 to 2 $.

There are 208 airports in Saudi Arabia, three of which have international status. The average price of one flight across the country ranges from $120 to $150.

Having access to the sea, Saudi Arabia contains a large number of seaports. Some of them are quite large, for example, Jeddah, Duba, Jizan, Jubail. They are the main links between Saudi Arabia and neighboring countries.

Connection

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones provides a fairly high level of communication. The mobile communications system in this country is excellently developed. In most cities, telephone companies prefer to remove old pay phones due to the fact that they are rarely used anymore. Almost all residents of this state, with the exception of some Bedouin tribes, are happy owners of mobile phones or radio stations.

The cellular network has a large coverage area: the area around Riyadh and other large oases. Only some areas of the desert are not served by cellular companies.

The World Wide Web is quite widespread in all major cities of Saudi Arabia. Most hotels, post offices and business centers provide their visitors with services for using the World Wide Web.

Telephone communications in this country are provided by the latest equipment, which allows achieving high quality data transmission. Using simple street machines you can make a phone call anywhere in the world. The cost of such a call will be just under $2. The operation of such machines is carried out both from coins and from a prepaid plastic card.

Safety

Saudi Arabia is closed to single travelers. All movements around the country must be carried out exclusively in groups and accompanied by a local tour operator, whose responsibilities include accompanying tourists everywhere and monitoring their timely departure.

There are practically no restrictions on movement around the country. The exceptions are the ancient Muslim cities of Medina and Mecca, which are closed to visitors of other religions. It is worth noting that local legislation even prohibits the import into this Muslim country of items that are related to other religions.

Saudi Arabia can be called a relatively safe country. Almost all tourist trips take place without criminal incidents. In large cities, including the capital, street crime is completely absent. This is due to the special mentality of the Arabs, as well as methods of combating the organization of crimes. Local authorities prefer to deal with hooligans using fines.

If we talk about the features of road transport, it is worth mentioning that traffic in Saudi Arabia is one-way, and the speed in cities and towns is reduced to 40 km/h. This innovation is quite unusual for Europeans.

Business

Huge oil reserves in Saudi Arabia have made this country the main producer and exporter of oil products in the world (the Kingdom's closest rival in this area is the Russian Federation). Such a colossal concentration of natural resources makes the country attractive for doing business. Moreover, recently the Prince of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Salman bin Abdulaziz, has introduced some innovations into the legislation of his country to simplify doing business. This is especially true for the tourism industry.

With the increasing interest of Muslim tourists in the beauty of famous religious shrines and thanks to the implementation of policies that soften the rules of the Koran, some foreign businessmen prefer to invest in the economy of this particular country, which is currently the most promising in the development of religious tourism.

It is worth noting that Saudi Arabia has recently been known for hosting major summits and conferences related to oil production and exports.

Real estate

Most scientists believe that Saudi Arabia's real estate market is almost the most stable in the world. It is not affected by the global economic crisis. Thanks to the deliberate strengthening of the country's economy and a good demographic situation, the Kingdom's real estate market is growing steadily.

This state has the largest real estate market among the Arab Gulf countries. Thanks to the high level of urbanization, large cities in the country began to develop quite quickly, which required the construction of new residential buildings.

Most recently, Saudi Arabia passed a law allowing the sale of real estate and land for construction to foreign citizens. But there are some limitations here. Firstly, the potential buyer must permanently reside in the state and purchase real estate only for his own use. The sale of premises to foreign investors for doing business in the state is also allowed.

Secondly, when purchasing a plot of land in Saudi Arabia, for a positive decision by the General Investment Authority, the cost of the construction project must exceed $8 million. In addition, the entire investment must be made in the country within five years. Otherwise, the purchase will be refused.

It is worth noting that the sale of real estate to foreigners in Mecca and Medina is strictly prohibited.

Rules of conduct in Saudi Arabia

If you want to visit this unique Kingdom, you should pay attention to some strict rules of behavior in Muslim society.

When entering the state, women must wear a burqa or a long dress that covers their legs and arms. A mandatory condition for a woman going out is to cover her head with a scarf. If you break these rules, you may be expelled from the country without explanation.

Any immodest clothing that exposes the arms above the elbows and legs, as well as a woman’s head not covered with a scarf, can cause sharp condemnation from the religious police.

In Saudi Arabia, women of any nationality are prohibited from driving.

Although the ban on photography and videography in public places has recently been lifted in Saudi Arabia, special permission is required to photograph military installations and people, private and government property.

For the use of alcoholic beverages, drugs, for committing theft or premeditated murder, according to local laws, a very serious punishment is faced: from cutting off hands to beheading.

Visa information

When visiting Saudi Arabia, you should make sure you have the necessary visa. It is strictly forbidden for people who have an Israeli passport or an Israeli visa to enter this country, as well as people who have a note in their passport about the Jewish religion.

The Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Moscow is located at: 119121, Moscow, 3rd Neopalimovsky Lane, 3.

Culture

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and determines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influences that other Arab states have experienced. The country lacks literary traditions comparable to those of the Arab Mediterranean countries. Perhaps the only well-known Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishr can be considered the most famous. The lack of literary tradition in Saudi Arabia is partly compensated for by deep-rooted traditions in the field of oral prose and poetry, dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been curtailed by the ban imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. There are few performers of folk music and songs, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are Saudi Arabia's first pop star Abdu Majid-e-Abdallah and the Arabic lute (ud) virtuoso Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban has been introduced on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural ornaments, such as friezes and mosaics, incorporating traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism does not approve of the construction of elaborately decorated mosques, so modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to ancient, aesthetically more interesting ones (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years appears to have been the restoration and decoration of the mosque on the burial site of the Prophet in Medina, and the major expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The severity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; Most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters or public cinemas in the country, and shows and performances are prohibited.

Arab nomads inhabiting desert areas roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional home is tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Sedentary Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of sun-dried bricks, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, have now become rare thanks to government housing policies.

The staple foods of the Arabs are mutton, lamb, chicken and game, seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews cooked with onions and lentils. A lot of fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. A popular drink is coffee. Camel, sheep and goat milk are consumed. Sheep's milk ghee (dahn) is commonly used for cooking.

Men play a dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil over her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her home, she may only leave her face uncovered in front of the men in her family. The women's ("forbidden") half of the house, the harim (hence the word "harem"), is separated from the part where guests are received. Among the Bedouins, women are usually freer; they may appear in society without a veil over their faces and talk with strangers, but they nevertheless occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. Marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered in a religious court. Although romantic love is a perennial theme in Arabic, especially Bedouin, poetry, marriages are typically arranged without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main responsibility of the wife is to care for her husband and meet his needs, as well as raise children. Marriages are generally monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one rather than several wives. The husband can apply to the judge (qadi) for a divorce at any time, the only restrictions being the marriage contract and the relationship between the families concerned. A woman can approach a qadi for a divorce only if there are grounds for doing so, such as mistreatment and meager maintenance by her husband, or sexual neglect.

Story

The eastern parts of what is now Saudi Arabia were settled in the fourth and fifth millennium by people from southern Iraq. The Nabattine Empire was the greatest of the early empires, stretching to Damascus in the first century BC.

In the early 18th century, the Al Sauds, the current ruling dynasty of Saudi Arabia, became sheikhs in the oasis of Dirayah, near modern Riyadh. In the mid-18th century, they teamed up with Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab to create Wahhabism, a religious movement harkening back to the origins of Islam, which is now the main religion of Saudi Arabia. By 1806, Wahhabi armies had captured most of what is now Saudi Arabia and southern parts of Iraq.

This situation was not supported in Constantinople, since in theory the western part of Arabia was part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1812, the empire regained western Arabia, but by the end of the 19th century the Al Sauds retreated to Kuwait, where they received refuge. From here, one of the great leaders of the Al-Sauds, Ibn Saud, using all conceivable and inconceivable means, was able to return Riyadh, and in 1925, Jeddah.

In 1939, Chevron discovered oil fields in Saudi Arabia, but when World War II began, oil production fell significantly. By the 1950s rulers earned up to $1,000,000 weekly from oil production, and by the 1960s. The country received 80% of its income from oil sales. Due to the Arab oil embargo of 1973-74. oil prices quadrupled and Saudi Arabia became something of a world leader. While the government was raking in money, a construction boom began in Saudi Arabia. But oil attracted many interested countries and Saudi Arabia's relations with its neighbors began to deteriorate sharply. The massacre of 400 Iranian hajj pilgrims in 1987 led Iran to boycott the Mecca pilgrimage for several years.

When Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990, the Arabians became nervous and asked the United States to send troops to protect Saudi Arabia. Although Arabia was not invaded, the crisis led to political changes and in 1993 the king established an advisory council whose members were appointed by the king and could comment on proposed laws.

The days of easy oil money are over, the country's population is rapidly increasing (the average Saudi woman gives birth to six children) and the kingdom is ruled by an aging King Fahd, who faces these intractable problems. In 1999, this inaccessible country hosted its first expensive tour. But still, for an ordinary traveler, getting into the country is almost impossible. Only Muslims making pilgrimages to Mecca or Medina and those lucky ones who can receive an invitation from a citizen of Saudi Arabia can count on obtaining a visa.

Economy

Currently, the basis of the Saudi Arabian economy is free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over major areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proven reserves of crude oil amount to 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export revenues, 75% of government revenues and 35–45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector.

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin the privatization of electrical companies, which would follow the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has expanded rapidly in recent years. The Saudi government's main priorities in the near future are to allocate additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, as water shortages and rapid population growth prevent the country from being fully self-sufficient in agricultural products.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). Industrial production growth in 1997 was 1%. In the past, Saudi Arabia's industry was underdeveloped, especially non-oil industries.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to more than 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, production of staple foods increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. Lands suitable for cultivation occupy 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Despite the fact that the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, agriculture in Saudi Arabia, using modern technology and machinery, is a dynamically developing industry.

Long-term hydrological studies, begun in 1965, have revealed significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources operates more than 200 reservoirs with a total capacity of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater daily, thus satisfying 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

Saudi Arabia reflects its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, particularly Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; Since 1993, the country has transferred $208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Flag of Saudi Arabia

The flag of the first state was a green banner with a white crescent. However, the Wahhibi used a green banner as a banner with the shahada (Islamic creed: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”) in Arabic. In 1902, he adopted the flag with the Shahada as the state flag, adding a sword to it. The design of the flag changed several times: white edges appeared and disappeared, the font changed, and there were two swords. The modern flag design was approved in 1973.

Among the features of the flag, it should be noted that it is sewn from two panels so that the text can be read from both sides. Because the Shahada is sacred to Muslims, the Saudi flag is prohibited from being displayed on T-shirts (in cases of extreme necessity, such as on the uniforms of athletes during international competitions, the flag is depicted with only a sword), and it is not flown at half-mast in case of mourning.

Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia

The coat of arms of Saudi Arabia was approved in 1950. It depicts a palm tree and two swords. The palm tree is the main tree of Saudi Arabia, and the two swords symbolize the two families that founded Saudi Arabia: and al-Wahhab.

States in the territory

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

المملكة العربية السعودية (Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyya)

From the third millennium BC, the territory of the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Semitic tribes - the ancestors of modern Arabs, who assimilated the Negroid population of the south of the peninsula. In the first millennium BC, ancient Arab states - kingdoms - began to take shape in the south of the peninsula. Among the population of Northern Arabia, tribal relations prevailed for a long time, but gradually slave states, in particular, began to form there from tribal unions. In the 1st century BC, Northern Arabia came under the rule, and after its collapse it became an arena of struggle between and. As for the west and south of the peninsula (Hijaz, Asir and Yemen), they found themselves at the crossroads of trade routes between the Mediterranean, India and Africa, which contributed to the emergence and growth of cities such as Maqoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). Along with the development of trade, Christianity and Judaism began to spread in these areas.

By the 5th century AD, in the central region of Arabia - Najd - an alliance of Arab tribes led by the Kinda tribe was formed, which spread its influence to the south and east of the peninsula. Around 529, the alliance collapsed, and Arabia became the scene of struggle between Ethiopian and Persian rulers. The fight against the invaders was led by the Quraish tribe from Mecca. The Prophet Muhammad came from this tribe, thanks to whose activities a new religion, Islam, arose in Arabia in the 7th century. It was Islam that became the core around which the disparate nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula united into the Arab nation, and a new theocratic state arose - with its capital in Medina.

As a result of the rapid expansion, by the middle of the 8th century, in addition to Arabia, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria, Persia, Transcaucasia, North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula came under the rule of the caliphs. The capital of the caliphate was moved from Medina, first to Damascus, and then to Baghdad. This led to Arabia becoming the outskirts of a huge state.

In 1901, against the backdrop of the Kuwait crisis, in which the leading world powers were involved, the struggle for Riyadh was resumed. In January 1902, as a result of a daring raid, his son took Riyadh, and by the spring of 1904 he had restored power over most of Najd. The Rashidids turned to Russia for help, but the Sultan's troops were defeated and were forced to leave the peninsula. The Sultan recognized Nejd as his vassal. In 1906, the emir recognized authority over Najd and Qasim, and the sultan confirmed this agreement.

Najd and Hejaz in 1923

Following independence, clashes between Arab states resumed. In 1920, Nejd troops captured Upper Asir, and the following year it was annexed to the possessions. On August 22, 1921, he was proclaimed Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, they captured Al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan and moved their troops north, to, and. Not wanting Najd to become too strong, the British supported the Hashemite rulers and. were defeated.

In 1928, an out-of-control uprising broke out in the kingdom. Ikhwans. Having received a blessing from the ulema, he formed a small army from members of tribes loyal to him and drove the rebels into the territory. There they were surrounded by English troops and their leaders were handed over. With defeat Ikhwans tribal associations lost their role as the main military support. During the civil war, the rebel sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage towards the creation of a single centralized state.

The new monarch set a course for the gradual modernization of the kingdom. Under him, the introduction of Western technologies in industry and the social sphere began, reform of the healthcare and education systems was carried out, and national television appeared. In foreign policy, border disputes with, and. In 1970, the civil war in YAR was ended, where Saudi Arabia supported supporters of the overthrown imam. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Saudi Arabia supported and even for some time imposed an oil embargo on the United States. Normalization of relations with America occurred only after the signing of a truce between Israel, and in 1974.

In 1975, the king was assassinated by one of his nephews, and his brother ascended the throne. He was in poor health, and therefore actual power was in the hands of his brother. He continued the conservative policies of his predecessor. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the kingdom's role in regional politics and international economic and financial affairs has increased.

The Islamic Revolution of 1978-79 in Iran led to an outbreak of Islamic fundamentalism in the world. There have been major anti-government protests in Saudi Arabia. In addition, in the early 1980s, prices and demand for oil fell sharply, which led to a crisis in the Saudi economy, another aggravation of internal contradictions and the foreign policy situation in the region.

Gulf War

During the Iran-Iraq War, Saudi Arabia supported. In response, followers of Ayatollah Khomeini regularly attempted to disrupt the annual Hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia was forced to sever diplomatic relations with. During the 1990-91 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia was threatened by an Iraqi invasion. Thousands of American and allied military forces were deployed across the country. The king made a great personal contribution to the creation of the anti-Iraqi coalition of Arab states.

After the Gulf War, under pressure from liberals, he began political reforms. In particular, the Advisory Council was created, the Council of Ministers was reformed and the administrative-territorial division of the country was changed. However, the reforms could not resolve the contradictions that had simmered in Saudi society. The presence of American troops on Saudi territory contradicted the doctrines of Wahhabism, and several terrorist attacks against Americans took place in the kingdom in the 1990s. Saudi Arabia was one of two countries that recognized the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Relations with the United States deteriorated further after the events of September 11, 2001, Washington accused Saudi Arabia of financing international terrorist organizations, in particular al-Qaeda. However, the United States did not agree to sever relations with Saudi Arabia.

Two human rights organizations were established in Saudi Arabia in 2003, and local elections were held for the first time in 2005.

Despite the reforms carried out, Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed and conservative countries in the world. All power is in the hands of the king, who is also the spiritual leader of the country. His power is limited only by Sharia law. This makes Saudi Arabia along with the only absolute theocratic monarchy in the world. The throne is inherited. The right to the throne is legally assigned to the sons and grandsons of the first king, but the order of succession is not clearly defined: the heir is selected by a special Council from among the most influential members of the royal family.

The Constitution of Saudi Arabia declares the Koran; All legislation is based on Islamic law. Any discussion of the existing system is prohibited in the country. Religious police are active ( muttawa), monitoring compliance with Islamic norms. The use of alcohol and drugs, theft and murder are severely punished; Public executions are practiced. Women's rights are severely limited, and all restrictions also apply to foreign citizens located in Saudi Arabia. Despite its alliance with the West, Saudi Arabia is often criticized for being tolerant of Islamic radicalism. Saudi Arabia is the homeland of former international "terrorist No. 1" Osama bin Laden; Many Islamic militants find refuge on its territory.

The unrest in the Arab world in 2011 hardly affected Saudi Arabia. Only Shiite unrest was recorded in Al-Qatif, which was suppressed by the authorities using weapons. Currently, any rallies and demonstrations in Saudi Arabia are prohibited as contrary to Sharia law. The police have the right to use any means to suppress illegal assemblies.

At the end of 2017, several dozen members of the elite, including princes, were arrested in Saudi Arabia. Officially, they are accused of corruption, but in reality, most likely, there is a process of “clearing” the political field for Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman from representatives of the conservative opposition.

Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyya) is a state in southwest Asia. It occupies 2/3 of the Arabian Peninsula and a number of coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. 2.15 million km2 (according to UN data); according to other sources, from 1.6 million to 2.4 million km2 (the borders of Saudi Arabia in the south and southeast run through deserts and are not clearly defined). Population 17.4 million (1993), mostly Arabs. OK. 1/2 of the population are nomads and semi-nomads. Urban population 77.3% (1990). The official language is Arabic. The state religion is Islam. Administrative division: 17 administrative districts. The capital is Riyadh. Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy. The head of state is the king. Most of the surface is desert plateau, in the west there are mountains up to 3353 m high. The climate is hot, dry, tropical, subtropical in the north, tropical in the south. Average temperatures in July are above 30°C, in January 10-20°C. Precipitation approx. 100 mm per year (in the mountains up to 400 mm). There are no permanent rivers. The vegetation is desert, semi-desert. Asir National Park. In ancient times, the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was inhabited by nomadic pastoral Arab tribes. In the 7th century Islam arose in the western part of Saudi Arabia - Hijaz - and a Muslim theocratic state - the Caliphate - was formed. To the beginning 19th century Most of Arabia was united by the Wahhabis into the Saudi state, which existed until the beginning. 20th century (with breaks). As a result of Ibn Saud's wars for the unification of Arabia (20s of the 20th century), the state of Hejaz, Najd and annexed regions was created in 1927, and from 1932 - Saudi Arabia. With its vast oil and financial resources, Saudi Arabia plays a major role in Arab and international politics. The basis of the economy is the oil and gas industry. Share in GDP (1990,%): oil and gas industry 34, agriculture 3.4. Electricity production 47.7 billion kWh (1991). Oil refining, petrochemical, metallurgical, paper, textile, food industries; production of building materials. Crafts. Large and medium land ownership and small rental land use predominate. Main crops: date palm, wheat, barley. Vegetable growing, fruit growing. Nomadic livestock farming. Fishing; mining of pearls and corals. The length of railways is 1.4 thousand km, roads 128 thousand km, oil pipelines 3.7 thousand km (1992). Main seaports: in the Persian Gulf. - Ras Tanura, Dammam, Al-Khobar and Mina Saud; on Krasny metro station - Jeddah (serving pilgrims to Mecca and Medina - over 1.5 million people per year, Yanbu and Jizan. About 99% of exports are oil, petroleum products, liquefied gas. Main foreign trade partners: Japan, Italy, France, Germany. The currency is the Saudi Riyal.

Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyya). I. General information S.A. is a state in the southwest. Asia. It occupies about 2/3 of the Arabian Peninsula and a number of coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. It borders on the north with Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, and on the south and southeast. ≈ with the Yemen Arab Republic, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and in the east with Qatar. An area of ​​over 2.1 million km2 (according to the UN Demographic Yearbook 1972), according to other data, from 1.6 to 2.4 million km2 (the borders of S.A. in the South and South-East are not clearly established ). Population 8.2 million people. (1974, assessment). The capital is Riyadh. Administratively, it is divided into 4 provinces: Hijaz (administrative center ≈ Mecca), Asir (administrative center ≈ Abha), Najd (administrative center ≈ Riyadh), Eastern (formerly Al-Hasa, administrative center ≈ Dammam). II. Political system S.A. is an absolute monarchy. The king is at the same time the prime minister, the supreme commander of the armed forces; he forms the government (Council of Ministers) and appoints senior civil servants. The government develops bills, ratifies international treaties and agreements, monitors their implementation, makes decisions on issues of foreign and domestic policy, economics, finance, and forms public administration bodies. The provinces are headed by governors appointed by the king. In the 3 largest cities (Mecca, Medina, Jeddah) there are municipal councils, in rural areas there are district village and tribal councils. The judicial system includes local and high sharia courts, courts of appeal and the Judicial Review Commission in Mecca (the highest court of cassation). Legal proceedings are carried out in accordance with the norms of the Koran and Sharia. III. Nature S.A. is washed by the Red Sea in the southwest. and the Persian Gulf of the Indian Ocean in the north-east. The shores are predominantly low, sandy, slightly indented. Deserts predominate in S.A. (about 1 million km2). Relief. Plateau-like plains are widespread (gradually decreasing from 1000≈1300 m in the west to 200≈300 m in the east), weakly dissected by dry river valleys (wadis). Large areas are occupied by lava (mainly basalt) fields and rocky deserts (hamads). The largest sandy deserts are Nefud, Dekhna, the northern part of Rub al-Khali with dunes (up to 200 m high), ridged and hilly sands blowing over large areas. In the central part of S.A. there is a strip of cuesta hills. In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the Hijaz and Asir mountains with a height of 2500–3000 m (in some places higher), with gentle northeastern and steep, strongly dissected southwestern slopes, falling stepwise to a narrow (up to 70 km) coastal lowland Tihama. Along the coast of the Persian Gulf there is a flat, sometimes swampy or salt marsh-covered lowland called Al-Hasa (up to 150 km wide). Geological structure and minerals. In the W.S.A. there is a protrusion of the Precambrian foundation of the African-Arabian Platform - the Nubian-Arabian Shield, composed of gneisses and migmatites of the Archean - Lower Proterozoic, as well as a complex of Upper Proterozoic geosynclinal sediments (more than 10 km thick). Upper and Lower Proterozoic intrusions (from ultrabasic to granitoid) are widely developed; in the northeastern direction, the shield rocks are submerged under the sediments of the platform cover, which begin with the Vendian and Paleozoic, include the Mesozoic and Paleogene (their thickness is up to 6-7 km). Along the coast of the Persian Gulf, thick Neogene molasse deposits of the Mesopotamian foredeep are developed, the southern margin of which is home to the largest oil fields (see Persian Gulf oil and gas basin). The second oil-bearing area is the Rub al-Khali syneclise. The Precambrian rocks of the shield are associated with deposits of ores of iron, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, gold, rare earths, manifestations of beryllium and tin. Climate in the north it is subtropical, in the south it is tropical, sharply continental, and dry. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. The average temperature in July in Riyadh is 33 ╟C, in January ≈ about 14 ╟C, the absolute maximum is 48 ╟C, in the south of the country up to 54 ╟C. In the north there are sometimes frosts (up to ≈11°C). Precipitation almost everywhere is less than 100 mm (in the central regions the maximum is in spring, in the north in winter, in the south in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm per year. In the Rub al-Khali desert and some other areas, in some years there is no rain at all. The sultry southern samum wind in spring and early summer often causes sandstorms. Inland waters. Almost the entire S.A. is a drainage region without permanent rivers; temporary streams form only after intense rains. Groundwater plays the main role in water supply, providing up to 80% of the country's irrigation needs. They are especially abundant in the east, within the El-Hasa lowland, where there are many springs irrigating the oases. Groundwater is often located close to the surface and under wadi beds. In most of the territory, water supply is provided through rare deep wells and artesian wells. Soils. Primitive desert soils predominate; over vast areas the soil cover is absent and is replaced by salt crusts. In the north, coarse-skeletal subtropical sierozems are developed, and in depressions there are solonchaks and meadow-salt soils. Vegetation mostly desert, in the north it is semi-desert. White saxaul and camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamadas, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava fields, single poplars and acacias grow along the wadi beds, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs. The productivity of natural pastures usually does not exceed 1≈2 c/ha, and loose sands and hamadas are almost completely devoid of vegetation cover. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the vegetation composition increases. In the mountains in the south there are areas of savannah. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops. Animal world. In S.A. the wolf, jackal, fennec fox, hyena, caracal, wild ass onager, antelope, gazelle, hyrax, and hare are common. There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles), as well as birds (larks, hazel grouses, bustards). Locust areas. Lit.: Foreign Asia. Physical Geography, M., 1956; Petrov M.P., Deserts of the Globe, Leningrad, 1973; Zaichikov V.T., South-West Asia: natural resources and agricultural development, M., 1974: North-East Africa and Arabia. Basic tectonic elements, in the book: Geology and minerals of Africa, M., 1973. V. G. Kazmin (geological structure and minerals), M. P. Petrov (physical geography). IV. Population The overwhelming majority of the population are Arabs, about 2/3 of them are nomads and semi-nomads, maintaining a largely tribal division. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Kharb, Mutair, Beni Murra, Kakhtan, Juhaina, Muahib, Shararat, Manasir. A settled rural population lives in the mountainous regions of Najd and Hijaz, as well as in the oases. In the coastal regions (Tiham and Al-Has) and in the oases, the Arabs mixed with Africans who were brought into Arabia as slaves, and the population here has features of the Negroid race. Persians (about 50 thousand people), people from the Hindustan Peninsula (about 35 thousand people), from East Africa (about 80 thousand people), British and Americans (about 15 thousand people) also live in cities and oases .). The official language is Arabic. The official religion is Islam. The official calendar is the lunar hijri; the Gregorian calendar is also used (see Calendar). Population growth for 1963–73 averaged 2% per year and occurred both due to natural growth and due to immigrants arriving in the country in connection with the development of the oil industry (500 thousand people per 197

The economically active population in 1970 was 2.1 million people, of which 60.5% were employed in agriculture. About 50% of rural residents are nomads and semi-nomads. The settled population is concentrated in oases and cities. The average population density is less than 4 people. per 1 km2 Urban population 23.6% (1970). The most important cities: Riyadh (384 thousand inhabitants in 1975), Jeddah, Mecca, Medina.

V. Historical sketch

The territory of S.A. has been inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes since ancient times (2 thousand BC). In the 7th century n. e. In the western part of the Arabian Peninsula (in the Hijaz), a new religion arose - Islam and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. In the 7th-8th centuries. Most of the territory of modern S.A. was part of the Umayyad caliphate, in the 8th-9th centuries. ≈ Abbasids, in the 10th–12th centuries. independent principalities (emirates, sultanates) were created on part of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula; The Hijaz was a vassal of the Fatimids, then the Ayyubids, and in the mid-13th to early 16th centuries. ≈ Mamluks. The economic and religious-political significance of the Hijaz (the cities sacred to Muslims, Mecca and Medina, are located here) determined the desire of the caliphs to maintain their dominance over it. Nejd enjoyed significantly greater independence. At the beginning of the 16th century. The Ottoman Empire extended its power to the Hijaz. In Najd (Central Arabia), which remained a virtually independent emirate, in the 18th century. The Muslim religious and political movement of Wahhabism arose (see Wahhabis). The ruler (in 1726/27≈1765) of one of the emirates of Najd, Muhammad ibn Saud (from the Saudi dynasty ruling in S.A.) began in 1745 the struggle for the unification of Arabia under the banner of Wahhabism. By the beginning of the 19th century. Most of Arabia was united into the feudal state of the Saudis, based on nomadic and sedentary Arab nobility. In 1811–18, most of the Arabian Peninsula was captured by the troops of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, and the Saudi state was dismembered and occupied. Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the local population with the Egyptian occupation and the severance of trade ties, the Saudis twice (1821≈38, 1843≈65) restored their dominance over Najd, moving the capital from Deriya to Riyadh. After 1840, Hijaz was under Turkish rule. The southern part of modern S.A. ≈ Asir, which was part of the 16th century. part of the Ottoman Empire, from the mid-19th century. enjoyed considerable independence. In the 2nd half of the 19th century. The Wahhabi state was captured by the rulers of the principality of Shammar (Northern Arabia) - the Rashidids. In 1902, Emir Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait Mubarak, captured Riyadh, defeated the main forces of the Rashidids, and later restored Saudi power in Najd and began to expand his possessions, taking advantage of the contradictions between other Arabian emirates and Turkey. Great Britain tried to take advantage of this for its colonial purposes. In December 1915, an Anglo-Saudi agreement was concluded, according to which Great Britain recognized the independence of Najd; provided Ibn Saud with annual subsidies and weapons. However, Great Britain failed to drag Nejd into the war against Turkey. At the same time, as a result of the secret correspondence of 1915 between the British High Commissioner in Egypt McMahon and the Sheriff of Mecca (Hejaz) Hussein, an agreement was reached, according to which Hussein pledged to raise the Arabs in an uprising against Turkey, and in return, Great Britain pledged to recognize the independence of the future Arab state led by Hussein. In 1916, detachments of the Hejaz tribes, led by Hussein's son Emir Faisal, under the leadership of the English intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence, began military operations against Turkey. In 1918, Hussein accepted the title of “King of the Arabs,” but the Entente powers recognized him only as the King of the Hejaz. After the end of World War I (1914–18), Ibn Saud continued the struggle for the unification of Arabia. In 1920 he established a protectorate over part of Asir (all of Asir was subjugated in 1930), and in 1921 he subjugated Shammar. Not wanting to strengthen the new state, Great Britain provoked an action in 1922 by its proteges (sons of Hussein) - King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdallah against the state of Ibn Saud. The Saudis were defeated, and this forced Ibn Saud to sign treaties in Uqair in 1922 on the demarcation of borders with Iraq and Kuwait; border, i.e. neutral, zones were created. However, as a result of the war between Najd and Hejaz 1924-25, Ibn Saud annexed Hejaz to Nejd; in January 1926 he declared himself king of the Hejaz, Sultan of Nejd and annexed regions. On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it, which greatly contributed to strengthening the international position of the Saudi state. In January 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed king of Hejaz, Najd and annexed regions; in 1927 Great Britain was forced to recognize the independent state of the Saudis. Since 1932, the state began to be called S.A. In 1934, as a result of the war between S.A. and Yemen (provoked by Great Britain, which sought to prevent the strengthening of S.A.), which ended in the defeat of Yemen, S.A., under the Taif Treaty of 1934, achieved recognition by the government of Yemen inclusion of Asir, Jizan and part of Najran into its composition. During the years of the global economic crisis of 1929–33, the influx of pilgrims to Mecca, the main source of income for SA, sharply decreased. Severe crop failures worsened the situation. Under these conditions, the American oil monopolies achieved concessions for the exploration and production of oil in a large part of the country (industrial production began in 1938). During World War II (1939–45), S.A. broke off diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (194

But she did not participate in the war. At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in SA. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with S.A. and extended the Lend-Lease law to it. Until 1972, oil production (second place in the capitalist world after the United States) in SA was mainly carried out by the American oil company Aramco. An American air base was established in Dhahran.

The feudal-theocratic regime and absolutist methods of government caused discontent in the country. The working class (primarily oil workers; in the 60s there were about 70 thousand workers in S.A., including over 20 thousand people in the oil fields) rose up to fight to improve their economic and political situation , for the democratization of life in the country. The largest protest of workers was the strike of Aramco oil workers in 1953. King Saud, who came to power in 1953 (after the death of Ibn Saud), issued laws prohibiting strikes and demonstrations and providing for the most severe punishments (including the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime. Difficulties and contradictions in the development of the economy, the aggravation of the internal political situation, the systematic interference of Saud in the internal affairs of other Arab countries, and huge expenses for the royal court led to a political crisis. In 1962, Saud was forced to transfer actual power to Emir Faisal, and on November 2, 1964, abdicate in favor of Faisal. Faisal's government, relying on the feudal nobility, which received significant income, as well as the emerging national bourgeoisie, carried out a number of reforms in the field of economics (creation of new industrial enterprises, etc.), public education (see section Enlightenment).

Foreign policy of S.A. since the 2nd half of the 60s. was of a dual nature. On the one hand, S.A. acted (in 1966) as one of the initiators of the creation of the organization of Muslim states - the so-called Islamic Pact, tried to establish control over a significant part of the Persian Gulf region, and actively supported anti-communism. On the other hand, S.A. systematically supported the struggle of Arab countries against Israeli aggression; since 1967, S.A. began to provide significant financial assistance to countries that were victims of aggression - Egypt, Syria and Jordan. During the military conflict in the Middle East in October 1973, S.A. sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts, provided Egypt and Syria with free financial assistance, and in October - December reduced oil production and its supplies to countries that supported Israel imposed a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands. In October 1974, during a conference of leaders of Arab countries in Rabat, S.A. supported the recognition of the Palestine Liberation Organization as the sole representative of the Arab people of Palestine.

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated. Khaled ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud became king. The new government intensified the country's foreign policy, participating in activities to resolve the Middle East crisis and disagreements between individual Arab countries. SA uses its increased financial power, mainly revenues from oil production ($30 billion in 1974), to strengthen its influence in the countries of Asia and Africa, paying special attention to the countries of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea basins.

Lit.: Belyaev E. A., Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the Early Middle Ages, M., 1965; Lutsky V.B., New history of Arab countries, 2nd ed., M., 1966; Contemporary history of Arab countries, M., 1968; Vasiliev A. M., Puritans of Islam?, M., 1967; Proshin N.I., Saudi Arabia, M., 1964; Belyaev I.P., American imperialism in Saudi Arabia, M., 1957; Bodyansky V.L., Lazarev M.S., Saudi Arabia after Saud, M., 1967; Salah ad-Din al-Mukhtar, Tarikh al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyya (History of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia), vol. 1≈2, Beirut, 1957–60; Pirenne J., Discovery of Arabia, [trans. from French, M., 1970]; Musil A., The Northern Negd, N. Y., 1928; Philby H. St. J.B., Saudi Arabia, L., 1955; The Arabian Peninsula..., L., 1972; Riley C. L., Historical and cultural dictionary of Saudi Arabia, L., 1972.

G. L. Bondarevsky.

VI. Economic-geographical sketch

General characteristics of the economy. Before World War II (1939–45), cattle breeding played the main role in the economy of SA. After the war, oil production and export became crucial. In 1973, SA's income from oil exports amounted to $5.9 billion, and in 1974 (due to rising prices) about $30 billion. In the early 1970s. Oil accounted for over 95% of the country's total exports. In the gross domestic product in 1972/73, agriculture was (at current prices) 2.8%, mining (mainly oil) 65%, manufacturing 6%, electricity, gas and water supply 0.8%, construction 4.5 %, transport and communications 5.2%, trade and services 3.8%, other 11.9%.

From about the mid-40s. SA's oil industry was practically controlled by one of the largest oil companies, Aramco, as well as the American oil company Getty Oil and the Japanese oil company Arabian Oil. In 1962, the state oil company Petromin was organized. Based on an agreement between the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - OPEC (of which S.A. is a member) and the oil monopolies, S.A. has achieved since 1971 an increase in the share of income from oil operations to 55%; since mid-1974 it has received a 60% share in the capital of Aramco ; An agreement was reached on the transfer to S.A. of full control over the oil industry - oil production and refining (with payment for the company's property). The five-year program (1970/71≈1974/75) for the economic development of the country provided for the creation of new industries based on the oil industry, the construction of large irrigation facilities, and agricultural centers, energy and infrastructure development. Since June 1975, a five-year program 1975/76≈1979/80 has been implemented.

Industry. The oil production and oil refining industries have received the greatest development. SA is one of the largest oil-producing countries in the world, in the depths of which there are about 1/4 of the proven oil reserves of capitalist and developing countries (over 22 billion tons at the beginning of 1975); Oil production is growing rapidly, reaching 426 million tons in 1974. The largest developed oil fields are located in the eastern regions and on the shelf of the Persian Gulf - Ghawar, Khurais, Saffaniya, Abqaiq, Kharsaniya. Most of the oil is exported in crude form, about 30 million tons are pumped annually through the Trans-Arabian Tapline oil pipeline (1,720 km), running from Abqaiq to the port of Saida (Lebanon) on the Mediterranean Sea; there are oil pipelines from the Jizan field to the ports of S.A. El-Khuoar and Ras Tanura and to Bahrain. Part of the oil is processed at oil refineries ≈ in Ras Tannur (about 25 million tons per year) and in the cities of Jeddah and Riyadh. In addition to oil, gas is produced.

Since the late 60s. The petrochemical industry developed. There is a sulfur production plant in Abqaiq. In 1969, the construction of a chemical fertilizer plant in Dammam was completed, and in 1970, a lubricating oil plant in Jeddah went into operation.

In addition to the oil refining and petrochemical industries, the metallurgical (processing plant in Jeddah), paper (factory in Dammam), food (oil mills, confectionery factory in Mecca, tomato paste factory in Riyadh) are developing (especially in the 1960s-70s). , canned vegetable and fruit juice factory in Jeddah, date processing in Hofuf and Medina).

The building materials industry is also developing - cement (30.3 thousand tons of cement in 1959 and 910 thousand tons in 1972), glass (factory near Dhahran, 10 thousand tons per year) and brick. The most significant cement plants are in Jeddah, Dammam and Riyadh. There are thermal power plants that run on oil and serve mainly oil fields; installed capacity of power plants is 244 thousand kW (1973; 130 thousand kW in 1966), electricity production is 1210 million kWh in 1973/74 (377 million kWh in 1966).

Crafts and handicrafts, including jewelry made of gold and silver, occupy a significant place. Jeddah and Mecca are famous as centers of leather and pottery production, Hofuf, Jeddah and Taif are major centers of handicraft weaving.

Agriculture≈ the most backward sector of the economy, where feudal relations and remnants of the tribal system have largely been preserved. Large land ownership, combined with small-scale land use, prevails. About 60% of all cultivated land belongs to large and medium-sized landowners (tribal leaders, feudal lords, royal families, clergy), who rent them out in small plots, part of the land in the hands of foreign monopolies. Agriculture provided (in 1974) 1/4 of the country's food needs. The area of ​​land suitable for agriculture is 86 million hectares (1971; mainly in oases). The main agricultural areas are the provinces of Asir in the southwest. countries where about 60% of cultivated land (1970) is rain-fed and 30-40% (depending on the year) is irrigated land. Since the 60s the collection of agricultural products is increasing. crops thanks to the introduction of technology, the use of fertilizers, agrotechnical measures, the commissioning of areas with irrigation and drainage systems (for example, a dam in Wadi Jaza, 250 km east of the city of Jizan) and an increase in the area of ​​land irrigated with water from artesian wells ; Agricultural-industrial complexes are being created. The construction of an irrigation complex in the Eastern Province was completed (1975). The most important agricultural crop ≈ date palm (Eastern, Hijaz and Asir provinces); 220≈250 thousand tons of dates are collected annually. Of the cereals that are cultivated almost throughout the country, with the exception of the eastern regions, the following are widespread: wheat (125 thousand hectares, 150 thousand tons in 197

Sorghum (mainly durra; 135 thousand hectares, 175 thousand tons), millet, barley, corn. Around the cities there is vegetable growing (potatoes, eggplants, onions, tomatoes) and the cultivation of bananas, apricots, pomegranates, figs, peaches, and citrus fruits.

Animal husbandry is extensive and is the main occupation of nomads and semi-nomads. Camels (0.6 million heads in 1973), sheep and goats (3.0 million sheep, 1.7 million goats), and cattle (0.3 million heads) are bred in agricultural areas.

In the waters of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, tuna, mackerel, sardines, sharks, lobsters, crabs and shrimp are caught. In 1973, 39 thousand tons of fish were caught. Extraction of pearls, black coral and amber.

Transport. There is one single-track railway (594 km long) connecting Riyadh through the Hofuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf; in 1972 a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). Since 1964, the Hijaz railway, destroyed during the First World War of 1914–18, has been restored (740 km runs through the waterless desert of S.A., 463 km through Syria and Jordan). Length of asphalt roads (197

10.3 thousand km, unpaved ≈ 5.7 thousand km. The roads are asphalted: Jeddah ≈ Mecca (72 km), Jeddah ≈ Medina (425 km), Taif ≈ Mecca (89 km). Under construction (197

highway Taif ≈ Abha ≈ Jizan (7-15 km). Vehicle fleet 174 thousand cars (1974). In the east of the country, a network of roads connects oil fields and ports on the Persian Gulf, and also connects the Eastern Province with Riyadh and cities in neighboring countries. Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. Large ports: Jeddah (on the Red Sea; cargo turnover was 784 thousand tons in 1969), through which the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go; Dammam (on the Persian Gulf; 804 thousand tons in 1969). Oil is exported mainly through ports on the Persian Gulf - Ras Tanura (169.8 million tons in 1971), Al-Khobar and Mina Saud. Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by foreign shipping companies.

Air lines of Saudi Arabian Airlines connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East; there are 3 airports of international importance (in Dhahran, Jeddah and Riyadh).

External economic relations. In 1972, exports amounted to 22,761 million rials, imports were 4,705 million rials. The basis of exports is oil (375 million tons in 1974) and petroleum products. The export of dates, raw hides, and dried fish occupies a very modest place. They import machinery and equipment (over 35.7% of the import value in 1972), food (25.9%), construction materials (10.2%), chemical goods (5.2%), fabrics and clothing (7.3% ). Main trading partners: Japan (21.3% of export value, 10.1% of import value in 1970), Italy (10.8%, 4.5%, respectively), the Netherlands (9.1%, 4.5%), Great Britain (8%, 6.9%), Germany (2%, 9.9%), USA (1%, 18.2%), Lebanon (0.3%, 11.2%). Monetary unit ≈ Saudi rial; 3.52 rials = 1 US dollar (July 1975). SA provides assistance to Arab countries (in particular, Egypt and Syria) affected by Israeli aggression. Tourism is developed. In 1972, its income reached $156 million. A significant proportion of those visiting SA are Muslim pilgrims heading to Mecca and Medina.

Lit.: Ozoling V.V., Saudi Arabia, M., 1968; Proshin N.I., Saudi Arabia, M., 1964; Countries of Arabia. Directory, M., 1964.

N. I. Proshin.

VII. Armed forces

The armed forces consist of the Army, Air Force and Navy. There is a National Guard and a Border Coast Guard. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the king; direct leadership of the armed forces is exercised by the Minister of War and the General Staff. The army is staffed by volunteers. The total number of armed forces in 1974 was about 42.5 thousand people; National Guard and Border Coast Guard - about 70 thousand people. The ground forces (about 36 thousand people) consist of 4 brigades and several separate battalions and divisions, including 10 batteries of Hawk anti-aircraft guided missiles. The Air Force (about 5.5 thousand people) has about 100 combat aircraft. The Navy (about 1000 people) has up to 20 different boats.

VIII. Medical-geographical characteristics

According to the World Health Organization (1973), in 1970 there were 47 hospital institutions with 6.8 thousand beds (0.9 beds per 1 thousand inhabitants). Out-of-hospital care (1968) was provided in 206 dispensaries and 303 medical posts. In 1969, there were 1.5 thousand doctors (1 doctor per 11.1 thousand inhabitants), 353 dentists, 594 pharmacists and about 2 thousand paramedical workers. Doctors and pharmacists are trained at the university in Riyadh; There are also 7 secondary medical schools. Expenditures on health care (1968) amounted to 2.9% of the state budget.

O. L. Losev, A. A. Rozov.

Veterinary case. Particularly dangerous infectious diseases are registered: cattle plague, foot and mouth disease, sheep pox, African horse sickness, peripneumonia of cattle, trypanosomiasis of camels, etc. There is no central veterinary authority, research institutions and educational institutions in SA. The lack of veterinary and sanitary control over the vast territory of S.A. poses a potential danger to other countries of the Near and Middle East. There are 33 veterinarians in S.A. (1973).

IX. Education

In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory primary education and on the creation of secular public schools (there are also private schools); in 1960 there was a law on compulsory education for girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls. Initial training is free. Literacy centers operate. However, the number of illiterate people in 1972 was 80% of the population. Children of nomads do not attend school; girls are not fully educated.

The age of entry to school is ≈ 6 years. Primary school is 6 years old, secondary school consists of two levels: junior high school (3 years) and complete secondary school (3 years). Separate training. In the 1972/73 academic year, there were 475 thousand students in primary schools, and over 118 thousand students in secondary schools. Vocational schools (4-year) operate on the basis of an elementary school, vocational schools operate on the basis of a junior high school (3-year) or vocational schools (2-year). In the 1972/73 academic year, 14.3 thousand students studied in vocational schools and 3.1 thousand students in vocational schools. There is a paramedic and midwifery school, an art college, and an agricultural school. schools and colleges. Pedagogical personnel are trained by the Pedagogical Institute, the Institute of Sports Teachers, the Men's Pedagogical College, and the Women's Pedagogical College (all in Riyadh).

Among the higher education institutions, the largest are: the University of Riyadh (founded in 1957), the Abd al-Aziz University in Jeddah (founded in 1967), the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the Higher Institute of Technology and the Technical Institute in Er- Riyadh. Petroleum College in Dhahran.

Largest libraries: National Library (founded in 1968; 16 thousand volumes), Saud Library (14.8 thousand volumes and 200 manuscripts), University Library (65 thousand volumes) ≈ in Riyadh, Mahmoudiya Library (4.5 thousand volumes and 500 manuscripts), the Arif Hikmat library (1.5 thousand volumes and 4.5 thousand manuscripts) and the university library (30 thousand volumes) ≈ in Medina.

K. P. Matveev.

X. Print, radio broadcasting, television

More than 20 newspapers and magazines are published (1974). In Arabic: “Al-Bilyad”, since 1934, circulation 20 thousand copies, official; “An-Nadwa”, since 1958, 10 thousand copies; “Al-Medina al-Munawwara”, since 1937, 20 thousand copies: “Riyadh”, since 1964, 10 thousand copies; News from Saudi Arabia is a newsletter published in English by the Ministry of Information since 1961. Radio broadcasting since 1948, there are 3 state radio stations (in Jeddah, Riyadh and Damman), broadcasts are broadcast in Arabic and English; for foreign listeners in Urdu, Indonesian, Persian and Swahili. Television since 1965, there are 7 television stations, owned by the Ministry of Information.

XI. Literature

The formation of ancient and medieval literature on the territory of the modern state of S.A. took place in line with pan-Arab culture (see Arabic language, Arabic culture, section Literature). In Hijaz it developed in the 5th–7th centuries. Bedouin poetry (Imru-ul-Qais, died between 530≈540), was created in the 1st half of the 7th century. Koran. To this day, this poetry and the Koran are recognized as classics in all Arab countries. After the formation of the Caliphate and the movement of the centers of literary life to Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo, the development of literature in S.A. slowed down. It is represented mainly by folk poetry.

The growth of new literature in SA was long held back by the conservative social system and Wahhabi (see Wahhabis) ideology. Since the 20s. 20th century Under the influence of the literature of neighboring Arab countries, S.A. produced poets, journalists, and writers, and its literature combined educational, romantic, and realistic trends.

The founders of the romantic movement ≈ Muhammad Surur al-Sabban (b. 1898) and Muhammad Hasan Awwad (b. 1906; sofas “The Past and the Forgotten”, “Buds”, “To a New Life”, “The Great Wizard”, etc.), adjacent to a psychological school in poetry. Nature is glorified by Hussein Sirhan (b. 1915). Moods of anxiety mark the poetry of Muhammad Hasan Fiqi (b. 1930; “Being and the Poet”) and Muhammad al-Amer ar-Rumeikh (b. 1929; “The Cry of Life”). The poems of Abdullah al-Qaraawi (b. 1935) also belong to the romantic direction. In the works of Ahmed Abd al-Ghafur Attar (b. 1918), a significant theme is the life of the working people, exposing social injustice (collection of poems “Passion and Youth”). Revolutionary poetry of Abd ar-Rahman al-Majid al-Mansur (b. 1925; “The Birth of Man,” divans “We are the Masses,” “Roses and Thorns,” collection “The Sacred Offensive”).

The realistic trend in prose after the 2nd World War 1939–45 is represented by the stories of Amin Salem Rumeikh (collection “And the Ears Love”), Abdallah Munaa (“The Search”), Yusuf bin al-Sheikh Yaqub (“The Thief” and other stories), stories by Hasan Nasif (“Notes of a Former Student”), Abd al-Salam Hashim Hafiz (“Prisoned Girl”, “Talking Hearts”). Abd al-Ghafur Attar occupies a prominent place in the genre of short stories and short stories. In the works of realist writers, elements of sentimentalism are still strong; they are distinguished by excessive emotionality and elation of style. In 1957, Abd al-Salam Hashim Hafiz published the first novel dedicated to the defense of women's rights, “Samra of the Hijaz.” In the same year, Hamid Damankhuri published the first major work touching on issues of everyday life and traditions in the family, “The Price of Sacrifice.” Writers speak out in defense of national interests and respond to the anti-imperialist struggle of the young working class. Journalism and literary criticism of the 50s. represented by the works of Muhammad Hassan Awwad ("Frank Thoughts", "Inspired by Popular Life", "Reflections on Literature and Life"), Ahmed Abd al-Ghafur Attar ("A Drop from a Reed Pen"), Abdallah bin Khalis, Saad al-Bawaridi ( b. 1930), the work of the progressive literary critic Abdallah Abd al-Jabbar “Trends in modern literature of the central part of the Arabian Peninsula” (1959).

Lit.: Krachkovsky I. Yu., Izbr. soch., vol. 2≈4, M. ≈ Leningrad, 1956-57; Countries of Arabia. Directory, M., 1964, p. 138≈48; Contemporary Arabic Literature. Sat. articles, trans. from Arabic, M., 1960, p. 124≈31; Sharbatov G., Literature of Arabia, “Asia and Africa today”, 1962, ╧ 10; Hassan Abdallah al-Qirshi, Shawq wa Ward, ar-Riyadh, 1959; al-Juhayman Abd al-Karim, Asatir shaabiyya min qalb Jazirat al-Arab, vol. 1≈3, Beirut, ; al-Hindawi H., al-Haraka al-Adabiya fi-l-Mamlaka al-Saudiyya, “al-Adib”, 1972, ╧ 12.

N.K. Kotsarev.

XII. Architecture And fine art

The oldest monuments on the territory of S.A. are fragments of stone statues with generalized, rough facial features and stone reliefs with images of animals (7th-2nd centuries BC; El-Ula, Madain-Salih). By 2nd century BC e. ≈ 1st century n. e. the ruins of Nabatean cities rise in the north of the Hijaz with rectangular sanctuaries and rock tombs with jagged facades. Monuments of medieval Arab architecture (mosques, minarets, madrassas) have been preserved in Mecca and Medina. Folk dwellings are built from clay and mud brick in accordance with the natural conditions of the areas: in Jeddah and Medina there are multi-storey tower houses protected from the sun by lattice balconies - "mashrabiya", in Abha - houses with rows of slate cornices that protect the facade from rain. The dwellings of nomads are tents covered with fabric made of goat hair. Since the 1950s in cities (Jeddah, Riyadh) multi-storey buildings, hotels, stadiums, and airports are being built. In the cities, silver and gold jewelry, lead amulets, and souvenirs for pilgrims are made; gold embroidery was developed. Bedouin tents are decorated with bright striped woolen curtains, the utensils are covered with simple patterns; The production of artistic products from wool and leather is widespread.

Lit.: Voronina V.L., People's housing of Arab countries, M., 1972; Esin E., Mecca, the blessed, Madinah, the radiant, L. ≈ N. Y., .

V. L. Voronina.

Wikipedia

Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (; al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Saʻūdīyah) is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait to the north, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is washed by the Persian Gulf in the northeast and the Red Sea in the west.

Saudi Arabia is often called the "Land of the Two Holy Mosques", referring to Mecca and Medina - the two main holy cities of Islam. The short name of the country in Arabic is al-Saudi. Saudi Arabia is currently one of three states in the world that have a name given in honor of the ruling dynasty (Saudis), along with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (the Hashemite dynasty is in power) and the Principality of Liechtenstein (the possession of the princes of von und zu Liechtenstein).

Saudi Arabia, with its colossal oil reserves, is the main state of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. In 2009, it ranked second in the world in oil production and export (after Russia). Oil exports account for 95% of exports and 75% of the country's income, enabling it to support the welfare state.

It is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula and one of the richest powers on the planet. It is here that the most important pilgrimage centers of the Muslim world are located, and the local oil reserves are openly envied by the most prosperous countries of our time. From different sides, the Saudi kingdom is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, as well as the Arabian and Red Seas, delighting the eyes of amazed guests arriving on these mysterious shores.

Peculiarities

The monarchy is flourishing in Saudi Arabia and is currently led by the son of the founder of the state from the Saudi dynasty, Abdullah ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud. The symbol of the country's economy is the oil refining industry, thanks to which the state's welfare has been maintained at the highest level for a long time. Among the regular buyers of oil and gas are the USA, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and other prosperous powers. The harsh Sharia laws under which the kingdom lives are an integral part of the image of Saudi Arabia in the West and often cause discontent among international organizations monitoring the observance of human rights. Punishments for violations of Islamic laws here are indeed very severe. A small offense can cost a person a certain amount of money, and a large one can cost a person his head, in the literal sense of the word. The religious police vigilantly monitor compliance with standards of behavior and morality.

The country's territorial expanses are mainly formed from rocky and sandy deserts, where lichens, white saxaul, tamarisk, acacias and other plants grow. Date palms, bananas, citrus fruits, grains and vegetable crops are often found in oases. Wildlife, despite the arid climate, is very diverse and is represented by many individuals, including antelopes, gazelles, wild donkeys, hares, jackals, hyenas, foxes, wolves, as well as dozens of species of birds and rodents. A significant disadvantage of the state's political structure is serious youth unemployment and too much dependence on the financial generosity of the ruling royal family.

general information

The territory of Saudi Arabia is quite vast and covers an area of ​​just under 2 million 150 thousand square meters. km, which is the 12th indicator in the world. The population is about 27 million people. Arabic is used as the main language. The monetary currency is the Saudi Riyal (SAR). 100 SAR = $SAR:USD:100:2. Time zone UTC+3. Local time coincides with Moscow. Mains voltage 127 and 220 V at a frequency of 50 Hz, A, B, F, G. Country telephone code +966. Internet domain.sa.

A brief excursion into history

Since ancient times, the lands between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea were occupied by Arab tribes, and in the 1st millennium BC, the Minaan and Sabaean kingdoms existed in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. At the same time, in the historical region of Hijaz, many centuries ago, pilgrimage centers of the Islamic world arose - Mecca and Medina. It was in Mecca that the Prophet Muhammad began to spread Islam at the beginning of the 7th century, and a little later settled in Medina, which later became the capital of the Arab Caliphate. In the late Middle Ages, Turkish rule was established on the peninsula.

The birth of the first Saudi state began in 1744, with the active participation of the ruler of the city of Ad-Diriyah, Muhammad ibn Saud, and the preacher Muhammad Abdul-Wahhab. It existed for only 73 years until it was destroyed by the Ottomans. The second Saudi state, founded in 1824, suffered the same fate. The creator of the third was Abd al-Aziz, who captured Riyadh at the beginning of the 20th century, and then subjugated the Najd region. In September 1932, after the unification of the Hijaz and Najd regions, modern Saudi Arabia was formed, whose king was Abd al-Aziz. In subsequent decades and to this day, the royal throne has been regularly passed down by inheritance, while international relations with the West still remain very moderate and not too open, allowing Saudi Arabia to maintain its relative closeness and confidentiality on the world political stage.

Climate

The country has an arid climate with minimal rainfall throughout the year. The air temperature in the winter months on the coast fluctuates between +20..+30 degrees, and in the summer the thermometer regularly exceeds +50 degrees. In desert areas it is somewhat cooler. In the summer, at night, the temperature there can drop to 0 degrees. Precipitation, depending on the region, falls only in winter and spring, and even then in small quantities. It is recommended to come here from September to October or from April to May, when it is not too hot and the sea winds sufficiently freshen the air.

Visa and customs regulations

Visiting Saudi Arabia by citizens of Russia and Ukraine is possible only with a transit, student, work, business or visitor visa. In addition, group visas are accepted for Hajj pilgrims to Mecca. Regular tourist visas to the country are not issued. During the application process, women must provide a copy of their marriage document or confirm their relationship with the man accompanying them on the trip. Without the latter, they are prohibited from leaving the airport transit zone. Local customs regulations provide for a complete ban on the transport of alcohol and printed materials in Hebrew. The death penalty is applied for drug trafficking.

How to get there

There are 4 international airports in Saudi Arabia, one of which is in the capital, King Khalid. The most convenient flight option is flights with transfers to or. In addition, the kingdom can be reached through and through several other European countries. There are a number of large seaports on the Persian Gulf coast that receive ferries from, and.

Transport

Rail and bus commuter services are developed within the country. The roads are of very high quality. Women under 30 years of age are allowed to drive only when accompanied by men.

Cities and resorts

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed and mysterious countries in the world. For many years, this Arab state has preserved its culture, religion, traditions and customs, hidden from human eyes. For many travel lovers, a visit to the country of the sheikhs is a pipe dream, due to restrictions on foreign tourists, which, however, only makes it even more attractive and alluring.

The most important holy city of Muslims around the world is where the founder of the religion, Prophet Muhammad, was born. This is also where Holy Mosque Haram, accommodating up to 700 thousand people at a time. In the center of the mosque stands the Kaaba sanctuary, the corners of which are oriented to the four cardinal directions. The Kaaba is covered with a black silk blanket (kiswa), the upper part of which is decorated with sayings from the Koran embroidered in gold. The door to the sanctuary is made of pure gold and weighs 286 kg. In the eastern corner of the Kaaba there is a Black Stone, which is surrounded by a silver rim. In accordance with Muslim tradition, God gave this Black Stone to the first man expelled from paradise, Adam, after his sincere repentance.

Tradition says that the stone was originally white, but over time it turned black from the touch of sinners. Just a few meters separate the Kaaba from another Muslim shrine - the Maqam Ibrahim stone, which contains the imprint of Abraham's foot. In the Haram mosque flows the sacred spring of Zamzam, given to Ismail at the time when he, along with Hagar (Hajar), perished in the desert from unbearable thirst. It was around this source that Mecca subsequently arose. According to the basics of Islam, every Muslim is obliged to visit Mecca at least once in his life.

Another holy city of Muslims is, because it is here that the Prophet’s Mosque is located, in which the grave of the prophet is located, Abu Bakr (the first caliph and the father of one of Muhammad’s wives) and Umar ibn Khattab (the second caliph) are buried nearby. It must be said that in total there are about a hundred such religious buildings in this city, which are made in various architectural styles.

You can admire the magnificent buildings of embassies and consulates. Be sure to visit the beautiful national park Asir.

Despite the fact that it is one of the most modern cities in the Middle East, it has still retained the historical appearance of a typically eastern city, representing a fortress with a medieval majestic flavor, winding narrow streets where you can get lost, adobe houses whose facades face to the yard. Here is the royal palace and the Jamida Mosque.

If you prefer an active holiday, you will be pleasantly surprised by the variety of entertainment offered. Thus, the traditional sport of the residents is camel racing. Both in the capital and in the most remote Bedouin camp, regardless of the time of year, you can watch racing, dressage, as well as various team games in which camels are directly involved. Equestrian sports are no less popular here, and everything related to horses is of enduring value for local residents.

An actively developing type of recreation in the country is scuba diving in the waters of the Red Sea. It must be said that foreign tourists appreciated the untouchedness, as well as the species diversity of this clear sea.

One cannot fail to mention deep-sea fishing in the waters of the Gulf and directly on the Red Sea. At the same time, ancient original fishing methods are used to catch fish, which can easily compete with modern types of fishing, which is why such fishing tours are quite popular today.

Saudi Arabia is a fairly closed state, the tourism potential of which consists of the unique nature of the deserts, the combination of ancient traditions and modern trends, as well as many religious places of the Islamic world, which are the main reason for more than 90% of foreign citizens visiting the country.

Accommodation

Hotels of all categories are available throughout the Kingdom. Most tourist cities have the opportunity to rent an apartment for a short period of time; the owners of Shigka-maafroosha are located in hotel lobbies, offering their services to tourists. 4-5* hotels are quite expensive, but you get an excellent level of service, and the hotel restaurant will be open even during Ramadan.